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Research ArticleArticles

Prenatal Testosterone and the Earnings of Men and Women

Anne C. Gielen, Jessica Holmes and Caitlin Myers
Journal of Human Resources, January 2016, 51 (1) 30-61; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.51.1.30
Anne C. Gielen
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Jessica Holmes
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Caitlin Myers
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Abstract

Testosterone, which induces sexual differentiation of the male fetus, is believed to transfer from males to their littermates in placental mammals. Among humans, individuals with a male twin have been found to exhibit greater masculinization of sexually dimorphic attributes relative to those with a female twin. We therefore regard twinning as a plausible natural experiment to test the link between prenatal exposure to testosterone and labor market earnings. For men, the results suggest positive returns to testosterone exposure. For women, however, the results indicate that prenatal testosterone does not generate higher earnings and may even be associated with modest declines.

  • Received September 2013.
  • Accepted September 2014.
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Journal of Human Resources: 51 (1)
Journal of Human Resources
Vol. 51, Issue 1
1 Jan 2016
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Prenatal Testosterone and the Earnings of Men and Women
Anne C. Gielen, Jessica Holmes, Caitlin Myers
Journal of Human Resources Jan 2016, 51 (1) 30-61; DOI: 10.3368/jhr.51.1.30

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Prenatal Testosterone and the Earnings of Men and Women
Anne C. Gielen, Jessica Holmes, Caitlin Myers
Journal of Human Resources Jan 2016, 51 (1) 30-61; DOI: 10.3368/jhr.51.1.30
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  • Article
    • Abstract
    • I. Introduction
    • II. Gender Wage Gaps and Prenatal Testosterone
    • III. Research Design
    • IV. Data
    • V. Results
    • VI. Discussion
    • VII. Conclusion
    • Appendix Difference-in-Difference Estimates for Additional Outcomes
    • Footnotes
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