Article Figures & Data
Figures
- Figure 1 Fraction of Old-for-Grade by Date of Birth
Figure shows the fraction of “old-for-grade” children by date of birth around January 1 (marked by the vertical line). Being old-for-grade implies that the child starts school at age 7.6 instead of 6.6. Averages for population of children born in December or January from December 1986 to January 2000.
- Figure 2 Enrollment into Education by SSA and Age
Figure shows the fraction of children born 1986–2000 enrolled in education at each age by whether the child started school the calendar year they turned six, seven, or eight. Panel A shows the fraction of children enrolled in primary/lower secondary school, and Panel B shows the equivalent for enrollment into upper secondary school.
- Figure 3 Time use of Parents and Children
Panel A shows average minutes spent per parent, per day, with the youngest child in the family on care and spare time activities (the solid line), and on reading to/with the child (dashed line), across the age of the youngest child (own calculations based on the Danish Time Use and Consumption Survey 2008; see Bonke and Fallesen 2010). Panel B shows parental activities done almost every day, by whether their seven-year-old child has started school yet. The figure is constructed using the Danish Longitudinal Study of Children (DLSC). Panel C shows fraction of all mothers working full time and part time, respectively. The figure is constructed using monthly data from October (that is, right after the start of an academic year) in the years 2008–2010, across children’s age. Panel D shows difference in time spent in school or out-of-home care by whether the seven-year-old child has started school yet. The figure is based on DLSC. Young-for-grade implies that child is already in first grade at age seven; old-for-grade implies that the child is in kindergarten at age seven. Observations: Panel A, 1,439; Panels B and D, 4,043; Panel C, 1,009,995 (238,808 individual children).
- Figure 4 Parents Married or Cohabiting
Panel A shows the estimated effects of being old-for-grade on parents’ relationship status across child’s age for ages 3–22, and Panel C shows estimates across grade level for Grades 0–15 based on 2SLS regressions of fraction of parents who are married or cohabiting at a given age/grade. Cutoff dummy (January = 1) used as instrument. Conditioning set includes distance to cutoff, cohort fixed effects, and background characteristics (see Table 2). Dashed lines indicate 95 percent confidence intervals. Panel B shows the compliers’ estimated counterfactual outcomes as in Abadie (2002), where the vertical distance between the two counterfactual outcomes corresponds to the points estimates shown in Panel A. Online Tables A5 and A6 show the estimates presented visually in Panels A and C.
- Figure 5 Maternal Employment
Panel A shows the estimated effects of being old-for-grade on maternal employment across child’s age for ages 3–22 and Panel C shows estimates across grade level for Grades 0–15 based on 2SLS regressions of fraction of mothers in employment at a given age/grade. Cutoff dummy (January = 1) used as instrument. Conditioning set includes distance to cutoff, cohort fixed effects, and background characteristics (see Table 2). Dashed lines indicate 95 percent confidence intervals. Panel B shows the compliers’ estimated counterfactual outcomes as in Abadie (2002), where the vertical distance between the two counterfactual outcomes corresponds to the points estimates shown in Panel A. Online Appendix Tables A5 and A6 show the estimates presented visually in Panels A and C.
- Figure 6 Effects of Being Old-for-Grade on Mother’s Wage Earnings at Child Ages Seven, Eight, and Nine
Panels A, C, and E show counterfactual cumulated wage earnings distributions of mothers of young-for-grade and old-for-grade children at child ages seven, eight, and nine, respectively. Panels B, D, and F show the changes in densities across income levels induced by old-for-grade relative to being young-for-grade (the vertical differences between the lines in Panels A, C, and E). Population: all mothers. Income measure: annual earnings, year 2010 USD. Nonemployed mothers have annual earnings equal to zero.
Tables
(1) (2) (3) (4) F-statistic 1.00 0.84 0.90 0.78 p-value 0.43 0.55 0.50 0.60 Observations 132,039 132,039 132,039 132,039 Distance to cutoff X X X X Child characteristics at birth X X X X Parental characteristics, child at birth X X X X Cohort fixed effects X X Additional parental characteristics, child age 5 X X Notes: Table shows F-statistics and associated p-values from ordinary least squares (OLS) regressions. Columns 1 and 2 show results of a regression of birth month (January = 1) on distance to cutoff (in days), background characteristics of focal child and parents, and cohort fixed effects, whereas Columns 3 and 4 show results when additional parental characteristics at age five are added (marriage/cohabitation and maternal employment). Full set of estimation results are presented in Online Appendix Table A3.
(1) (2) January (0/1) 0.201*** 0.201*** (0.005) (0.004) Distance to cutoff, January 0.002*** 0.002*** (0.000) (0.000) Distance to cutoff, December −0.004*** −0.004*** (0.000) (0.000) Birth weight <2000 g 0.157*** (0.015) Boy 0.178*** (0.002) Boy*Birth weight <2000 g −0.079*** (0.021) # Older siblings −0.012*** (0.003) Parents married/cohabiting year before birth −0.005 (0.003) Mother’s age at birth −0.000 (0.000) Father’s age at birth −0.002*** (0.000) Constant 0.643*** 0.627*** (0.003) (0.008) Observations 132,039 132,039 R2 0.113 0.154 F-statistics 5,595 2,398 ↵Notes: Table shows results from linear regressions of indicators for starting school at age 7.6 instead of 6.6 for children born in December or January while conditioning on the cutoff dummy (January = 1), distance to cutoff, cohort fixed effects, and background characteristics. Standard errors in parentheses + p < 0.10, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.
- Table 3 Effects of Being Old-for-Grade on Older Siblings’ Grades by Distance in Focal Child’s and Sibling’s Age
Age Difference OLS 2SLS 2SLS Observations Math (SD) 1–3 years 0.107*** 0.122 0.056 31,505 (0.012) (0.104) (0.100) 4–6 years −0.128*** −0.032 −0.115 14,024 (0.019) (0.183) (0.174) 7–9 years −0.132*** 1.065** 0.985** 4,557 (0.034) (0.392) (0.355) Danish essay (SD) 1–3 years −0.066*** 0.134 0.116 31,505 (0.012) (0.104) (0.098) 4–6 years −0.079*** 0.096 0.003 14,024 (0.018) (0.182) (0.171) 7–9 years −0.119*** 0.037 0.101 4,557 (0.033) (0.345) (0.311) Danish grammar (SD) 1–3 years −0.102*** 0.106 0.079 31,505 (0.012) (0.103) (0.099) 4–6 years −0.121*** 0.279 0.189 14,024 (0.018) (0.184) (0.175) 7–9 years −0.139*** 0.768* 0.763* 4,557 (0.033) (0.368) (0.336) Danish oral (SD) 1–3 years −0.081*** 0.097 0.076 31,505 (0.012) (0.103) (0.099) 4–6 years −0.101*** −0.043 −0.123 14,024 (0.019) (0.182) (0.174) 7–9 years −0.105** −0.124 −0.070 4,557 (0.034) (0.342) (0.316) Distance to cutoff X X X Covariates X X ↵Notes: Table shows the estimated effects of being old-for-grade based on OLS and 2SLS regressions of older siblings’ grades at the end of Grade 9. Each table cell represents an estimate for one specific subgroup defined by age distance between siblings. Cutoff dummy (January = 1) used as instrument. Conditioning set includes distance to cutoff, cohort fixed effects, and background characteristics (see Table 2). Standard errors in parentheses +p < 0.10, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.
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