Article Figures & Data
Figures
- Figure 1
Distribution of the Proportion of Repeaters across Classes
Notes: The proportion of repeaters ranges from 0 to 66 percent. The numbers are all rounded to the nearest integer and shown in equally sized bins of one percentage point.
- Figure 2
Distribution of the Proportion of Repeaters in Two Classrooms within Each School
Notes: The within-school between-class difference in the proportion of repeaters ranges from 0 to 26 percent. The numbers are all rounded to the nearest integer and shown in equally sized bins of one percentage point.
- Figure 3
Relationship between First Differences in Average Outcomes of Nonrepeaters and First Differences in the Proportion of Repeaters
Notes: Data used in these figures are first aggregated to the class level and then first differenced between classes within each school. Accordingly, these figures show the relationships between the first differences in the average outcomes of nonrepeaters (y-axis) and the first differences in the proportion of repeaters (x-axis).
Tables
All Repeaters Nonrepeaters Raw Gap (1) (2) (3) (4) Female 0.476
(0.499)
0.417
(0.493)
0.488
(0.500)
−0.007
(0.007)
Urban hukou 0.483
(0.500)
0.252
(0.434)
0.528
(0.499)
−0.024*
(0.011)
Only child 0.423
(0.494)
0.145
(0.352)
0.478
(0.500)
−0.022***
(0.007)
Student age in years 13.585
(0.746)
14.306
(0.806)
13.443
(0.645)
0.179***
(0.014)
Mother education in years 9.618
(3.573)
7.509
(3.206)
10.033
(3.494)
−0.002
(0.002)
Father education in years 10.393
(3.141)
8.716
(2.433)
10.725
(3.160)
−0.002
(0.002)
Low income 0.212
(0.408)
0.370
(0.483)
0.180
(0.385)
0.006
(0.011)
Mother occupation Civil servants and government officials 0.034
(0.182)
0.012
(0.109)
0.038
(0.192)
Executives and managers 0.052
(0.223)
0.012
(0.109)
0.060
(0.238)
0.012
(0.019)
Teachers, engineers, doctors, and lawyers 0.060
(0.237)
0.019
(0.136)
0.068
(0.252)
0.013
(0.018)
Technicians (including drivers) 0.043
(0.204)
0.049
(0.216)
0.042
(0.201)
0.026
(0.023)
Manufacturing workers 0.117
(0.322)
0.137
(0.344)
0.113
(0.317)
−0.003
(0.020)
Marketing, sales, and service 0.150
(0.357)
0.104
(0.306)
0.159
(0.366)
0.008
(0.018)
Self-employed 0.162
(0.368)
0.116
(0.321)
0.170
(0.376)
0.005
(0.018)
Farmers 0.219
(0.414)
0.394
(0.489)
0.185
(0.389)
0.010
(0.028)
Unemployed 0.092
(0.289)
0.075
(0.264)
0.095
(0.293)
0.010
(0.020)
Other 0.070
(0.255)
0.080
(0.272)
0.068
(0.252)
0.046*
(0.021)
Father occupation Civil servants and government officials 0.052
(0.223)
0.025
(0.155)
0.058
(0.233)
Omitted
Executives and managers 0.085
(0.279)
0.018
(0.133)
0.098
(0.297)
−0.031+
(0.016)
Teachers, engineers, doctors, and lawyers 0.071
(0.257)
0.052
(0.221)
0.075
(0.263)
0.009
(0.016)
Technicians (including drivers) 0.176
(0.381)
0.179
(0.383)
0.176
(0.381)
−0.016
(0.018)
Manufacturing workers 0.093
(0.290)
0.106
(0.308)
0.090
(0.287)
−0.028
(0.019)
Marketing, sales, and service 0.166
(0.273)
0.117
(0.253)
0.176
(0.276)
−0.019
(0.019)
Self-employed 0.166
(0.372)
0.117
(0.321)
0.176
(0.381)
−0.028
(0.018)
Farmers 0.189
(0.392)
0.340
(0.474)
0.160
(0.367)
0.003
(0.028)
Unemployed 0.025
(0.157)
0.022
(0.146)
0.026
(0.159)
−0.033
(0.024)
Other 0.061
(0.239)
0.073
(0.261)
0.058
(0.234)
−0.023
(0.020)
Family risk factors At least one parent is absent from home 0.246
-0.431
0.399
-0.450
0.220
-0.412
0.001
(0.009)
Father gets drunk regularly 1.082
(0.274)
1.110
(0.313)
1.076
(0.266)
0.031*
(0.013)
Parents always quarrel 1.096
(0.295)
1.126
(0.332)
1.090
(0.287)
0.004
(0.014)
Observations 8,454 1,392 7,062 8,454 ↵Notes: All variables are binary unless otherwise noted. While some variables have missing values, the missing rates for student characteristics variables are all below 4 percent. Standard deviations in parentheses from Columns 1–3. In Column 4, we regress the indicator of whether a student is a repeater against student and family characteristics while controlling for school fixed effects to examine whether the differences between repeaters and nonrepeaters reach statistical significance. Standard errors are in parentheses. + p<0.10, *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p < 0.001.
Repeaters Nonrepeaters Raw Gap N (1) (2) (3) (4) Academic performance 69.260
(21.93)
80.480
(21.37)
-5.507***
(0.908)
8,210
Cognitive assessment 9.040
(3.243)
11.060
(3.433)
-0.733***
(0.129)
8,408
Mental stress 2.180
(0.789)
1.973
(0.806)
0.102**
(0.032)
8,028
School disengagement 1.796
(0.492)
1.555
(0.460)
0.071***
(0.015)
8,113
Expected years of education 15.230
(3.443)
16.710
(2.975)
-0.839***
(0.152)
8,078
Confidence about future 3.125
(0.756)
3.329
(0.684)
-0.101***
(0.022)
8,328
Observations 1346 7062 ↵Notes: We present the descriptive statistics of “expected years of education” and “confidence about future” separately because they are in different scales. Columns 1 and 2 present the means of outcomes with standard deviations in parentheses. In Column 3, we regress each outcome variable on the repeater dummy to examine the raw gap between repeaters and nonrepeaters while controlling for school fixed effects; standard errors are in parentheses. Column 4 shows the number of nonrepeaters in the regression analysis sample. The analysis sample is restricted to students with nonmissing values on the outcome variables. The missing rates of outcome variables are all below 4 percent. + p < 0.10, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.
Academic Performance Cognitive Assessment Mental Stress School Disengagement Educational Expectations Treatment: Proportion of Peer Repeaters (%) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Female 0.403***
(0.026)
−0.009
(0.032)
0.087**
(0.029)
−0.040*
(0.019)
0.017
(0.029)
−0.003
(0.119)
Urban hukou 0.028
(0.031)
0.040
(0.048)
−0.020
(0.031)
−0.012
(0.018)
−0.010
(0.022)
−0.563
(0.391)
Only child 0.119***
(0.035)
0.041
(0.040)
−0.034
(0.026)
−0.014
(0.022)
0.032
(0.027)
−0.209
(0.232)
Age −0.162***
(0.024)
−0.185***
(0.026)
0.016
(0.021)
0.018
(0.017)
−0.102***
(0.019)
0.101
(0.134)
Mother education in years 0.009
(0.006)
0.006
(0.007)
−0.004
(0.006)
0.000
(0.004)
0.011*
(0.005)
−0.038
(0.036)
Father education in years 0.025***
(0.006)
0.012
(0.008)
−0.005
(0.006)
−0.011**
(0.004)
0.032***
(0.005)
−0.016
(0.038)
Low income −0.086*
(0.038)
−0.126**
(0.043)
0.136***
(0.030)
0.069*
(0.029)
0.018
(0.037)
0.219
(0.444)
Mother occupation (Reference group: Civil servants and government officials) Executive and managerial −0.064
(0.084)
−0.094
(0.132)
−0.101
(0.091)
−0.065
(0.063)
0.095
(0.060)
−0.082
(0.488)
Teachers, engineers, doctors, and lawyers 0.147
(0.097)
0.298*
(0.120)
−0.006
(0.076)
−0.168***
(0.042)
0.057
(0.067)
−0.513
(0.444)
Technicians (including drivers) 0.007
(0.086)
0.143
(0.106)
0.016
(0.121)
−0.116+
(0.060)
−0.118
(0.080)
0.409
(0.710)
Manufacturing workers 0.055
(0.078)
0.181
(0.112)
0.072
(0.090)
−0.085
(0.054)
−0.146*
(0.069)
−0.037
(0.562)
Marketing, sales, and service 0.029
(0.088)
0.188+
(0.104)
0.010
(0.083)
−0.081
(0.050)
−0.136+
(0.070)
−0.157
(0.450)
Self-employed 0.106
(0.069)
0.181*
(0.082)
0.026
(0.075)
−0.117*
(0.046)
0.030
(0.070)
−0.710
(0.543)
Farmers 0.069
(0.086)
0.091
(0.112)
−0.040
(0.084)
−0.100+
(0.057)
−0.025
(0.066)
−0.139
(0.450)
Unemployed 0.046
(0.086)
0.157
(0.115)
0.060
(0.083)
−0.016
(0.057)
−0.121
(0.074)
−0.004
(0.610)
Other −0.014
(0.077)
0.026
(0.100)
0.013
(0.079)
−0.108*
(0.047)
−0.055
(0.061)
−0.214
(0.357)
Observations 6,939 7,062 6,904 7,029 7,020 7,062 Father occupation (Reference group: Civil servants and government officials) Executive and managerial −0.076
(0.059)
−0.110
(0.084)
0.087
(0.068)
−0.035
(0.056)
−0.080
(0.077)
0.118
(0.380)
Teachers, engineers, doctors, and lawyers −0.009
(0.075)
−0.044
(0.091)
−0.018
(0.069)
−0.034
(0.052)
−0.054
(0.104)
−0.331
(0.694)
Technicians (including drivers) −0.072
(0.068)
−0.025
(0.084)
0.024
(0.063)
−0.025
(0.052)
−0.022
(0.083)
0.045
(0.424)
Manufacturing workers −0.120+
(0.063)
−0.070
(0.107)
−0.003
(0.069)
−0.035
(0.053)
−0.123
(0.097)
0.512*
(0.254)
Marketing, sales, and service −0.142*
(0.070)
−0.176+
(0.102)
0.019
(0.074)
−0.061
(0.051)
−0.053
(0.093)
0.765*
(0.383)
Self-employed −0.071
(0.059)
−0.017
(0.084)
0.012
(0.060)
−0.051
(0.040)
−0.052
(0.097)
0.086
(0.304)
Fanners −0.075
(0.073)
−0.053
(0.097)
−0.043
(0.068)
−0.070
(0.059)
−0.112
(0.095)
0.460
(0.537)
Unemployed −0.100
(0.110)
−0.104
(0.124)
0.017
(0.102)
−0.058
(0.085)
0.086
(0.143)
1.018
(0.726)
Other −0.021
(0.082)
−0.074
(0.111)
0.036
(0.071)
0.001
(0.058)
−0.061
(0.099)
0.374
(0.591)
Family risk factors At least one parent is absent from home −0.091**
(0.034)
−0.033
(0.032)
0.063*
(0.025)
0.031
(0.027)
−0.038
(0.024)
0.191
(0.286)
Father gets drunk regularly −0.093*
(0.044)
−0.090+
(0.054)
0.125*
(0.051)
0.017
(0.039)
−0.156**
(0.048)
0.063
(0.306)
Parents always quarrel −0.027
(0.040)
0.010
(0.056)
0.359***
(0.052)
0.189***
(0.035)
−0.183***
(0.048)
−0.038
(0.283)
Observations 6939 7062 6904 7029 7020 7062 ↵Notes: All models include school fixed effects. Standard errors in parentheses. +p< 0.10, *p< 0.05, **p< 0.01, ***p< 0.001.
Proportion of Repeaters in Class Homeroom teacher female −2.145
(2.083)
Homeroom teacher age in years −0.437
(0.292)
Education level (Reference group: Professional college education) Adult higher education 0.936
(3.768)
College education or higher −0.185
(4.167)
Graduated from a normal university −3.038
(2.525)
Have a teaching certificate 2.494
(5.195)
Teaching experience in years 0.428*
(0.190)
Teaching title (Reference group: No title) Level 2 or 3 8.130
(5.704)
Level 1 6.219
(6.635)
Senior teacher or higher 6.475
(8.990)
Teaching award (Reference group: School level or no award) County or district level −0.928
(2.483)
City level −0.888
(2.678)
Provincial or national level −3.044
(2.833)
Class size −0.203
(0.385)
Observations 183 ↵Notes: Data are aggregated to the class level. Accordingly, each observation represents one class. The model controls for school fixed effects. Standard errors in parentheses. + p < 0.10, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Academic performance –0.029***
(0.008)
–0.026***
(0.007)
–0.024***
(0.007)
–0.021***
(0.006)
–0.018*
(0.007)
Observations 6,939 6,939 6,939 6,939 90 Cognitive assessment –0.025**
(0.008)
–0.023**
(0.008)
–0.026***
(0.007)
–0.023***
(0.006)
–0.023**
(0.008)
Observations 7,062 7,062 7,062 7,062 90 Mental stress 0.006+
(0.004)
0.006
(0.003)
0.003
(0.004)
0.003
(0.003)
0.004
(0.005)
Observations 6,904 6,904 6,904 6,904 90 School disengagement 0.010*
(0.004)
0.009**
(0.004)
0.007*
(0.003)
0.007*
(0.003)
0.006+
(0.003)
Observations 7,029 7,029 7,029 7,029 90 Educational expectations –0.013**
(0.005)
–0.011**
(0.004)
–0.005
(0.004)
–0.003
(0.004)
–0.003
(0.004)
Observations 7,020 7,020 7,020 7,020 90 School fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Student characteristics No Yes Yes Yes Yes Homeroom teacher characteristics No No Yes Yes Yes Classroom characteristics No No No Yes Yes First difference number of repeaters Yes ↵Notes: All outcome variables are standardized among nonrepeaters within each school. Each coefficient represents a separate regression using the proportion of repeater peers to predict each outcome variable. Student characteristics include gender, hukou status, only child, age, parental educational attainment, parental occupations, family income, and family risk factors. Homeroom teacher characteristics include homeroom teacher gender, age, educational level, graduated from a normal university (a university specializing in teaching), have a teaching certificate, teaching experience in years, teaching title, and teaching award. Classroom characteristics include class size, percentage of boys, percentage of low-income families, and percentage of students who have at least one family risk factor. Column 5 shows the first-difference estimates at the school level. Standard errors are in parentheses. + p < 0.10, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.
Descriptiive Statistics Regression Coefficients Repeaters Nonrepeaters School FE with Individual Controls School FE with Individual and Homeroom Teacher Controls School FE with Individual, Homeroom Teacher, and Classroom Controls N (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Positive student–teacher interaction 2.560
(0.633)
2.745
(0.621)
–0.002
(0.003)
–0.000
(0.003)
–0.001
(0.002)
7,038
Positive student–student interaction 2.996
(0.775)
3.246
(0.734)
–0.010*
(0.005)
–0.004
(0.004)
–0.002
(0.004)
7,016
After-school study time (hours) 1.238
(1.200)
1.334
(1.016)
–0.010***
(0.003)
–0.008*
(0.003)
–0.010*
(0.004)
6,498
Having friends with general disciplinary problems 0.334
(0.472)
0.193
(0.395)
0.001
(0.002)
0.002
(0.002)
0.002
(0.002)
6,943
Having friends who go to internet cafés regularly 0.212
(0.409)
0.087
(0.282)
0.001
(0.002)
0.003+
(0.001)
0.002
(0.001)
6,929
Observations 1,391 7,061 School fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Student characteristics Yes Yes Yes Homeroom teacher characteristics No Yes Yes Classroom characteristics No No Yes ↵Notes: Columns 1 and 2 present the raw mean values for repeaters and nonrepeaters with standard deviations in parentheses. Columns 3–5 present estimates based on regressions with different specifications, in which we progressively add student characteristics, homeroom teacher characteristics, and classroom characteristics to the school fixed effects models. Outcome variables in Column 3–5 are standardized among nonrepeaters within each school. Standard errors in parentheses. +p< 0.10, *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001.
Child Discipline at Home Regular Homework Check Mother’s Education Nonstrict Strict Difference No Yes Difference College or Higher High School or Less Difference (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Panel A: Cognitive and Noncognitive Outcomes Academic performance –0.023*
(0.009)
–0.019***
(0.006)
0.004
(0.007)
–0.019*
(0.009)
–0.021**
(0.007)
–0.002
(0.011)
–0.002
(0.019)
–0.022***
(0.006)
–0.020
(0.018)
Observations 1,356 5,157 6,513 1,564 5,301 6,865 1,074 5,712 6786 Cognitive assessment –0.030**
(0.010)
–0.019**
(0.006)
0.011
(0.009)
–0.043***
(0.007)
–0.015*
(0.006)
0.028***
(0.007)
–0.014
(0.018)
–0.024***
(0.006)
–0.011
(0.018)
Observations 1,385 5,237 6,622 1,603 5,377 6,980 1,084 5,821 6,905 Mental stress 0.007
(0.006)
0.003
(0.004)
–0.003
(0.006)
0.004
(0.006)
0.003
(0.003)
–0.001
(0.005)
–0.006
(0.010)
0.002
(0.004)
0.008
(0.010)
Observations 1,359 5,126 6,485 1,585 5,252 6,837 1,063 5,697 6,760 School disengagement 0.011*
(0.005)
0.004
(0.003)
–0.007
(0.006)
0.011*
(0.004)
0.005
(0.003)
–0.007+
(0.004)
–0.012
(0.012)
0.007*
(0.003)
0.021+
(0.011)
Observations 1,379 5,219 6,598 1,597 5,363 6,960 1,080 5,795 6,875 Educational expectations –0.002
(0.005)
–0.003
(0.004)
–0.002
(0.005)
–0.006
(0.007)
–0.002
(0.004)
0.005
(0.006)
0.023+
(0.012)
–0.004
(0.004)
–0.027*
(0.012)
Observations 1,373 5,212 6,585 1,594 5,348 6,942 1,079 5,785 6,864 Panel B: Mechanisms Positive student–teacher interaction –0.001
(0.006)
–0.002
(0.003)
–0.001
(0.008)
–0.001
(0.005)
–0.002
(0.003)
–0.001
(0.007)
–0.011
(0.012)
–0.001
(0.002)
0.009
(0.011)
Observations 1,379 5,229 6,608 1,598 5,372 6,970 1,084 5,800 6,884 Positive student–student interaction –0.009+
(0.005)
–0.001
(0.004)
0.008
(0.007)
–0.002
(0.005)
–0.002
(0.004)
–0.000
(0.006)
0.003
(0.023)
–0.002
(0.004)
–0.003
(0.022)
Observations 1,378 5,209 6,587 1,595 5,355 6,950 1,078 5,786 6,864 After–school study time (hours) –0.025***
(0.007)
–0.007+
(0.004)
0.019**
(0.006)
–0.016**
(0.005)
–0.010+
(0.005)
0.005
(0.007)
–0.003
(0.015)
–0.010*
(0.004)
–0.006
(0.015)
Observations 1,280 4,829 6,109 1,479 4,964 6,443 987 5,380 6,367 Having friends with general disciplinary problems 0.004
(0.005)
0.001
(0.002)
–0.003
(0.004)
0.003
(0.003)
0.000
(0.002)
–0.003
(0.003)
–0.012
(0.007)
0.003
(0.002)
0.014*
(0.007)
Observations 1,356 5,164 6,520 1575 5305 6880 1067 5726 6793 Having friends who go to internet cafés regularly 0.006*
(0.003)
0.001
(0.001)
–0.004+
(0.003)
0.006*
(0.003)
–0.000
(0.001)
–0.006**
(0.002)
–0.005
(0.005)
0.003*
(0.002)
0.008
(0.005)
Observations 1,355 5,153 6,508 1,571 5,297 6,868 1,067 5,714 6,781 ↵Notes: Columns 3, 6, and 9 are results of joint F-tests examining whether the two groups of coefficients are significantly different from each other. All models include student, homeroom teacher, and classroom control variables, as well as school fixed effects. Standard errors in parentheses. + p< 0.10, *p<0.05, **p< 0.01, ***p< 0.001.
Proportion of Male Repeaters Proportion of Female Repeaters (1) (2) Panel A: Cognitive and noncognitive outcomes Academic performance –0.028***
(0.007)
–0.012
(0.010)
Observations 6,939 6,939 Cognitive assessment –0.021**
(0.007)
–0.028*
(0.011)
Observations 7,062 7,062 Mental stress 0.001
(0.005)
0.004
(0.005)
Observations 6,904 6,904 School disengagement 0.007+
(0.004)
0.006
(0.005)
Observations 7,029 7,029 Educational expectations –0.008+
(0.005)
0.006
(0.007)
Observations 7,020 7,020 Panel B: Mechanism outcomes Positive student–teacher interaction 0.001
(0.003)
–0.006
(0.005)
Observations 7,038 7,038 Positive student–student interaction –0.009+
(0.005)
0.011
(0.008)
Observations 7,016 7,016 After-school study time (hours) –0.011*
(0.005)
–0.011
(0.008)
Observations 6,498 6,498 Having friends with general disciplinary problems 0.006**
(0.002)
–0.006*
(0.002)
Observations 6,943 6,943 Having friends who go to internet cafés regularly 0.004**
(0.002)
–0.001
(0.002)
Observations 6,929 6,929 ↵Notes: All models include student, homeroom teacher, and classroom control variables, as well as school fixed effects. Standard errors in parentheses. + p < 0.10, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.
Free alternate access to The Journal of Human Resources supplementary materials is available at https://uwpress.wisc.edu/journals/journals/jhr-supplementary.html
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