Article Figures & Data
Figures
- Figure 1
Marginal Effect of Maternal Health on Child Health across Ages
Notes: This figure plots the marginal effects, estimated by Equation 1, of instrumented maternal height on child HAZ (Panel A) and WHZ/ZBMI (Panel B) at each observed age. Maternal height is instrumented using the SVA-optimal IV; see Sections IV.A and IV.B for details. The estimated effect on birthweight is excluded from Panel B because its scale (grams) differs from those measured at other ages. Estimated coefficients corresponding to those in this figure are in Table 3. All pretreatment controls are included, which are mother age, mother age cohort dummies, child gender, child birth month fixed effects, and baseline and current barangay fixed effects. For birth outcomes only an indicator for whether gestational age is in question is included. Bars represent 95 percent confidence intervals.
- Figure 2
Marginal Effect of Maternal Health on Child Health across Ages, Controlling for Socioeconomic and Parental Input Controls
Notes: This figure plots the marginal effects, estimated by Equation 4, of instrumented maternal height on child HAZ (Panel A) and WHZ/ZBMI (Panel B) at each observed age. Maternal height is instrumented using the SVA-optimal IV; see Sections IV.A and IV.B for details. Circles correspond to the baseline estimates reported in Figure 1, Xs correspond to estimates from Equation 4 including pretreatment controls and only socioeconomic controls (Column 1 of Table 4), and iamonds correspond to estimates from Equation 4 including pretreatment controls and both socioeconomic and parental input controls (Column 2 of Table 4). The effect of maternal height on birthweight is excluded from Panel B because its scale (grams) differs from those measured at other ages. Estimated coefficients corresponding to those in this figure are in Online Appendix Table B.10. Bars represent 95 percent confidence intervals.
- Figure 3
Marginal Effect of Maternal Health on Child Health, Controlling for Socioeconomic Characteristics and Birthweight
Notes: This figure plots the marginal effects, estimated by Equation 5, of instrumented maternal height on child HAZ (Panel A) and WHZ/ZBMI (Panel B) at each observed age. Maternal height is instrumented using the SVA-optimal IV; see Sections IV.A and IV.B for details. Circles correspond to baseline estimates reported in Figure 1 and include only pretreatment controls. Xs correspond to estimates from Equation 5 and include birthweight in addition to all pretreatment, socioeconomic, and parental input controls. See Sections IV.A and V.A and Table 4 for details. The effect of maternal height on birthweight is excluded from Panel B because its scale (grams) differs from those measured at other ages. Corresponding coefficients are reported in Online Appendix Table B.12. Bars represent 95 percent confidence intervals.
- Figure 4
Marginal Effect of Maternal Health on Child Height-for-Age by Sex, Controlling for Socioeconomic Characteristics and Birthweight
Notes: This figure plots the marginal effects, estimated by Equation 5, of instrumented maternal height on child HAZ at each observed age separately for girls (Xs) and boys (diamonds). Maternal height is instrumented using the SVA-optimal IV; see Sections IV.A and IV.B for details. Controls include birthweight in addition to all pretreatment, socioeconomic, and parental input controls. See Sections IV.A and V.A and Table 4 for details. Corresponding coefficients are reported in Online Appendix Table B.15. Bars represent 95 percent confidence intervals.
- Figure 5
Marginal Effect of Maternal Health on Age 11 Girl Height-for-Age Depending Probable Growth Stage, Controlling for Socioeconomic Characteristics and Birthweight
Notes: This figure plots the marginal effects, estimated by Equation 6, of instrumented maternal height on girl HAZ at age 11, separately for girls likely in childhood (Xs) versus pubertal growth (blue diamonds). Maternal height is instrumented using the SVA-optimal IV; see Sections IV.A and IV.B for details. Girls are assumed to be in childhood growth if menarche is still two or more years after their 1994 interview date. Controls include birthweight in addition to all pretreatment, socioeconomic, and parental input controls. See Sections IV.A and V.A and Table 4 for details. Corresponding coefficients are reported in Online Appendix Table B.16. Bars represent 95 percent confidence intervals.
- Figure 6
Marginal Effect of Maternal Health on Age 15 Boy Height-for-Age Depending Probable Growth Stage, Controlling for Socioeconomic Characteristics and Birthweight
Notes: This figure plots the marginal effects, estimated by Equation 6, of instrumented maternal height on boy HAZ at age 15, separately for boys likely in childhood (Xs) vs pubertal growth (diamonds) based on four pubertal indicators. Maternal height is instrumented using the SVA-optimal IV; see Sections IV.A and IV.B for details. Details on the pubertal indicators can be found in Section III. Controls include birthweight in addition to all pretreatment, socioeconomic, and parental input controls. See Sections IV.A and V.A and Table 4 for details. Corresponding coefficients are reported in Online Appendix Table B.17. Bars represent 95 percent confidence intervals.
Tables
Age 1 Age 2 Age 8 Age 11 Age 15 Age 15 Panel A: Girls Child age (years) 1.01
(0.01)
2.01
(0.01)
8.51
(0.04)
11.55
(0.40)
15.09
(0.35)
15.09
(0.35)
Height-for-age z-score −1.21
(0.98)
−2.23
(1.08)
−1.99
(0.95)
−1.93
(1.10)
−1.83
(0.80)
−1.83
(0.80)
Weight/BMI-for-age z-score −0.57
(0.79)
−0.71
(0.84)
−0.81
(0.84)
−1.02
(1.05)
−0.67
(0.99)
−0.67
(0.99)
Stunted 0.62
(0.49)
0.73
(0.44)
0.52
(0.50)
0.48
(0.50)
0.42
(0.49)
0.42
(0.49)
Wasted 0.29
(0.46)
0.21
(0.40)
0.08
(0.27)
0.17
(0.38)
0.09
(0.29)
0.09
(0.29)
Per capital income (Philippine Peso) 2,704
(4,756)
3,273
(7,994)
10,463
(10,331)
14,480
(15,480)
23,494
(21,961)
23,494
(21,961)
Household size 6.69
(2.81)
6.73
(2.74)
6.86
(2.24)
7.06
(2.40)
6.95
(2.41)
6.95
(2.41)
Panel B: Boys Child age (years) 1.01
(0.01)
2.01
(0.01)
8.51
(0.05)
11.53
(0.40)
16.12
(0.33)
16.12
(0.33)
Height-for-age z-score −1.41
(1.02)
−2.38
(1.14)
−2.08
(0.94)
−2.00
(0.97)
−1.87
(0.86)
−1.87
(0.86)
Weight/BMI-for-age z-score −0.58
(0.89)
−0.73
(0.92)
−0.81
(0.94)
−1.14
(1.13)
−1.01
(1.07)
−1.01
(1.07)
Stunted 0.66
(0.47)
0.78
(0.41)
0.54
(0.50)
0.52
(0.50)
0.42
(0.49)
0.42
(0.49)
Wasted 0.34
(0.48)
0.22
(0.41)
0.09
(0.29)
0.20
(0.40)
0.16
(0.37)
0.16
(0.37)
Per capital income (Philippine Peso) 2,694
(3,649)
3,362
(5,267)
10,584
(12,291)
15,178
(19,617)
27,126
(26,766)
27,126
(26,766)
Household size 6.92
(2.82)
6.88
(2.77)
6.91
(2.28)
7.11
(2.46)
6.75
(2.44)
6.75
(2.44)
Notes: This table summarizes time-varying childhood characteristics across each observed age for girls (Panel A) and boys (Panel B).
Mean SD Min. Max. Baseline Mother’s age 26.80 5.87 17.00 47.00 Mother’s height (cm) 150.79 5.11 128.80 169.50 Male 0.53 0.50 0.00 1.00 Birthweight (grams) 2,997.31 446.44 1,150.00 5,700.00 Low birthweight 0.12 0.32 0.00 1.00 Girl indicators Age at menarche 13.05 0.98 10.25 15.33 Menarche four years or more after 1991 interview date 0.72 0.45 0.00 1.00 Menarche 2+ yrs post 1994 survey 0.35 0.48 0.00 1.00 Menarche 1+ yrs before 1998 survey 0.84 0.37 0.00 1.00 Boy indicators Begun shaving 0.21 0.40 0.00 1.00 Voice has changed in recent years 0.95 0.22 0.00 1.00 Has visible underarm hair 0.61 0.49 0.00 1.00 Has high level of pubic hair 0.42 0.49 0.00 1.00 Notes: This table summarizes baseline characteristics and pubertal indicators for our sample of index children.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Birth HAZ Age 1 HAZ Age 2 HAZ Age 8 HAZ Age 11 HAZ Age 15 HAZ Panel A: Child Height Outcomes Mother’s height (cm) 0.0206
(0.0287)
0.0931***
(0.0202)
0.134***
(0.0343)
0.128***
(0.0304)
0.147***
(0.0290)
0.109***
(0.0239)
Observations 2,988 2,996 2,604 2,210 2,133 2,045 IV effective F-stat 56.68 62.28 44.04 33.00 32.01 22.66 Birth Weight Age 1 WHZ Age 2 WHZ Age 8 ZBMI Age 11 ZBMI Age 15 ZBMI Panel B: Child Weight Outcomes Mother’s height (cm) 30.38**
(12.55)
0.0764***
(0.0227)
0.0971***
(0.0302)
0.0768**
(0.0311)
0.0487
(0.0377)
0.0618*
(0.0358)
Observations 2990 2980 2606 2210 2133 2045 IV effective F-stat 56.73 57.35 44.42 33.00 32.01 22.66 ↵Notes: This table reports marginal effects, estimated by Equation 1, of instrumented maternal height on child HAZ (Panel A) and WHZ/ZBMI (Panel B) at each observed age. Maternal height is instrumented using the SVA-optimal IV; see Sections IV.A and IV.B for details. These coefficients correspond to those plotted in Figure 1. Controls include gender, mother’s age, mother cohort dummies, birth month fixed effects, and baseline and current barangay fixed effects (which are equivalent at birth year). For birth outcomes only, an indicator for whether gestational age is in question is included. Child height outcomes are length-for-age z-scores from birth through age two and height-for-age z-scores for ages 8–15. Olea and Pfluefer effective F-statistics are reported. Clustered standard errors are in parentheses. *p<0.1, **p< 0.05, ***p<0.01.
Socioeconomic Controls Parental Input Controls (1) (2) Birth Per capita household income, Household size, Mother’s education, Baseline asset value, Access to piped water, Flushable toilet, Electricity, Garbage taken away after disposal, Uses clean cooking fuel, Food area kept clean, Excreta visible around HH Took prenatal vitamins, Received prenatal care, Baby delivered by doctor, Baby delivered in hospital Age 1 Per capita household income, Household size, Mother’s education, Baseline asset value, Access to piped water, Flushable toilet, Electricity, Garbage taken away after disposal, Household uses clean cooking fuel, Food area kept clean, Excreta visible around HH, Animals kept inside HH In last year child given vitamins or minerals, vaccinations, or nontreated water, Child breastfed for full first year Age 2 Per capita household income, Household size, Mother’s education, Year 2 asset value, Access to piped water, Flushable toilet, Electricity, Garbage is taken away after disposal, Uses clean cooking fuel, Food area kept clean, Excreta visible around HH, Animals kept inside HH In last year child given vitamins or minerals, vaccinations, or nontreated water Age 8 Per capita household income, Household size, Mother’s education, Access to piped water, Flushable toilet, Electricity, Garbage taken away after disposal, Uses clean cooking fuel, Food area kept clean, Excreta visible around HH Since last survey child given vitamins or minerals or vaccinations, Child given worm medication, Child’s food consumption score for average week, Extended family in HH Age 11 Per capita household income, Household size, Mother’s education, Access to piped water, Flushable toilet, Electricity, Garbage taken away after disposal, Uses clean cooking fuel, Food area kept clean, Excreta visible around HH Parent usually helps child with homework, Hours spend on chores in avg week, Child’s food consumption score for average week, Extended family in HH, Per capita expenditure on food, child allowances, and school fees Age 15 Per capita household income, Household size, Mother’s education, Access to piped water, Flushable toilet, Electricity, Garbage taken away after disposal, Uses clean cooking fuel, Food area kept clean, Excreta visible around HH Child’s food consumption score for average week, Extended family in HH, Per capita expenditure on food, child allowances, and school fees Notes: This table lists all socioeconomic and parental input controls included at each observed age when estimating Equations 4, 5, and 6. Controls differ across ages because (i) survey questions differed across rounds and/or (ii) certain inputs are important at one age but not another (for example, help with homework). Measures on food area cleanliness and visible excreta around household (HH) are based on enumerator observation.
Free alternate access to The Journal of Human Resources supplementary materials is available at https://uwpress.wisc.edu/journals/journals/jhr-supplementary.html
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