Article Figures & Data
Figures
- Figure 1
Yearly Labor Supply Elasticities for Workers with Different Routine Task Intensity (RTI)
Source: Authors’ calculations based on SIAB 1985–2014, for West Germany.
Notes: The estimates are derived from the same specification as in Table 4. Further, a three-way interaction with year dummies is added to analyze the development over time, that is, log wages, RTI, and year dummies are interacted. The plotted lines correspond to the sum of the relevant coefficients for workers with mean RTI as well as workers with RTI one standard deviation below (“low RTI”) and above (“high RTI”) the mean.
- Figure A.1
Labor Supply Elasticities for Workers with Different Routine Task Intensity (RTI) over Three-Year Intervals
Source: Authors’ calculations based on SIAB 1985–2014, for West Germany.
Notes: The estimates are derived from the same specification as in Table 4. Further, a three-way interaction with three-year dummies is added to analyze the development over time; that is, log wages, RTI, and three-year dummies are interacted. The plotted lines correspond to the sum of the relevant coefficients for workers with mean RTI as well as workers with RTI one standard deviation below (“low RTI”) and above (“high RTI”) the mean.
- Figure A.2
Yearly Labor Supply Elasticities for Workers with Different Routine Task Intensity (RTI)-Within-Worker Variation
Source: Authors’ calculations based on SIAB 1985–2014, for West Germany.
Notes: The estimates are derived from a stratified Cox model using the same control variables as in Table 4. Further, a three-way interaction with year dummies is added to analyze the development over time; that is, log wages, RTI, and year dummies are interacted. The plotted lines correspond to the sum of the relevant coefficients for workers with mean RTI as well as workers with RTI one standard deviation below (“low RTI”) and above (“high RTI”) the mean.
Tables
Routine NRM NRC All Workers Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Log(daily wage) 4.32 0.33 4.14 0.43 4.48 0.39 4.32 0.38 Imputed log(daily wage) 4.37 0.38 4.16 0.45 4.75 0.52 4.44 0.48 Share censored 5.65 2.47 32.42 12.62 RTI 0.43 0.15 0.36 0.16 0.26 0.11 0.38 0.16 NRMTI 0.36 0.17 0.38 0.15 0.17 0.13 0.32 0.17 NRCTI 0.21 0.18 0.26 0.19 0.57 0.18 0.30 0.23 Job tenure in years 6.36 6.56 4.96 6.01 5.68 6.16 5.97 6.41 Share of high-skilled workers in firm 5.78 8.91 5.52 8.31 17.66 20.56 8.29 13.26 Share of low-skilled workers in firm 17.36 14.56 20.21 16.02 13.45 13.16 17.01 14.69 Share of foreign workers in firm 9.89 13.84 13.41 17.33 8.01 13.69 10.09 14.57 Share of female workers in firm 21.29 19.20 30.03 23.03 36.93 23.54 26.18 21.93 Share of part-time workers in firm 5.09 9.15 8.81 14.15 10.98 14.02 7.00 11.59 Share in small firms (0–19 employees) 24.98 19.50 22.73 23.55 Share in medium firms (20–250 employees) 41.61 44.87 39.75 41.77 Share in large firms (251–999 employees) 17.65 18.46 19.35 18.16 Share in very large firms (1000+ employees) 15.13 16.52 17.58 15.90 Missing 0.63 0.66 0.60 0.63 Share in agriculture and forestry 0.19 0.16 0.12 0.17 Share in fishery 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 Share in mining industry 1.48 0.34 0.38 1.04 Share in manufacturing industry 42.66 30.92 26.23 37.09 Share in energy and water supply industry 1.38 0.29 0.86 1.08 Share in construction industry 17.46 3.09 2.72 11.80 Share in trade and repair industry 13.66 17.62 12.75 14.15 Share in catering industry 0.45 4.63 5.64 2.30 Share in transport and news industry 7.72 10.07 2.72 7.05 Share in finance and insurance industry 0.56 0.35 9.67 2.48 Share in economic services industry 6.56 17.26 16.68 10.59 Share in public services industry 4.25 4.46 4.52 4.35 Share in education industry 0.42 1.07 4.21 1.35 Share in health industry 0.82 4.75 8.30 3.12 Share in other industry 1.74 4.33 4.58 2.80 Missing 0.64 0.66 0.61 0.64 Share in top 3 industries with highest collective bargaining commitment 22.27 7.90 16.91 18.62 Share in bottom 3 industries with lowest collective bargaining commitment 21.83 32.31 21.11 23.49 Share of foreign workers 11.60 18.72 6.87 11.82 Share without vocational training 11.21 20.46 2.70 10.97 Share with upper secondary school leaving certificate or vocational training 84.48 73.81 69.40 79.38 Share with university degree or university of applied sciences degree 2.17 1.63 25.33 7.07 Missing 2.15 4.09 2.57 2.58 Share in age group 18–25 15.87 18.76 10.45 15.20 Share in age group 26–35 30.42 31.19 38.43 32.28 Share in age group 36–45 28.45 27.30 30.02 28.59 Share in age group 46–55 25.27 22.75 21.11 23.94 Share in district-free cities 29.93 35.96 41.47 33.47 Share in urban districts 44.39 43.02 39.72 43.15 Share in rural districts, some densely populated areas 14.16 12.22 10.48 13.03 Share in rural districts, sparsely populated 10.88 8.14 7.73 9.73 Missing 0.64 0.66 0.60 0.63 Number of separations to employment 258,284 84,761 101,819 444,864 Number of separations to nonemployment 450,502 168,768 123,420 742,690 Number of employment spells 3,448,117 976,905 1,216,219 5,641,241 Number of workers 338,384 164,654 171,454 465,131 Source: SIAB and BHP 1985–2014. Authors’ calculations.
Notes: Employment spells are split by calendar year. Shares are expressed in percent. All statistics are estimated after dropping censored spells (except imputed wages and the share of censored spells). NRM, nonroutine manual; NRC, nonroutine cognitive; RTI, routine task intensity; NRMTI, nonroutine manual task intensity; NRCTI, nonroutine cognitive task intensity.
Routine NRM NRC Separation rate to employment log wage (ϵe sw) -1.271*** -1.203*** -0.905*** (0.012) (0.019) (0.020) Observations 1,766,919 497,460 733,684 Separation rate to nonemployment log wage (ϵn sw) -1.628*** -1.610*** -1.302*** (0.008) (0.013) (0.015) Observations 3,351,798 930,594 1,177,920 Hiring probability from employment log wage 
1.737*** 1.519*** 1.887*** (0.013) (0.020) (0.022) ϵθw 1.065 1.021 1.079 Observations 574,157 199,582 205,774 Share of hires from employment (θ) 0.387 0.328 0.428 Firm-level labor supply elasticity (ϵLw) 1.696 1.659 0.958 Source: SIAB and BHP 1985–2014. Authors’ calculations.
Notes: Clustered standard errors at the person level in parentheses. Covariates included (see Section III for details): dummy variables for age and education groups, immigrant status, occupation fields, economic sector, worker composition of the firm (shares of low-skilled, high-skilled, female, part-time, and immigrant workers in the plant’s workforce), dummy variables for plant size, the average age of its workforce, year and federal state fixed effects, unemployment rate by year and federal state. Significance:
* p < 0.10,
** p < 0.05,
↵*** p < 0.01.
NRM, nonroutine manual; NRC, nonroutine cognitive.
Component Routine Workers’ Estimated Firm-Level Labor Supply Elasticity Change in Percent of the Routine – NRC Difference in the Labor Supply Elasticity NRM Workers’ Estimated Firm-Level Labor Supply Elasticity Change in Percent of the NRM – NRC Difference in the Labor Supply Elasticity Routine/NRM workers’ estimated firm-level labor supply elasticity 1.696 1.659 … when using NRC workers’ estimated separation rate elasticity to employment (ϵe sw) 1.188 -68.83 1.263 -56.49 … when additionally using NRC workers’ estimated separation rate elasticity to nonemployment (ϵn sw) 0.989 -26.97 1.056 -29.53 … when additionally using NRC workers’ estimated wage elasticity of the share of hires from employment 0.897 -12.50 0.809 -35.28 … when additionally using NRC workers’ estimated share of hires from employment ( = NRC workers’ estimated labor supply elasticity) (θ) 0.958 +8.30 0.958 +21.30 Source: SIAB and BHP 1985–2014. Authors’ calculations.
Notes: The decomposition is based on estimates from Table 2. NRM, nonroutine manual; NRC, nonroutine cognitive.
RTI NRMTI NRCTI Separation rate to employment log wage (ϵe sw mean TI) -1.273*** -1.199*** -1.241*** (0.009) (0.009) (0.009) log wage × TI -0.315*** -0.181*** 0.359*** (0.007) (0.007) (0.007) ϵe sw (high TI) -1.588 -1.380 -0.882 ϵe sw (low TI) -0.958 -1.018 -1.600 Observations 2,998,063 2,998,063 2,998,063 Separation rate to nonemployment log wage (ϵn sw mean TI) -1.612*** -1.570*** -1.582*** (0.006) (0.006) (0.006) log wage × TI -0.227*** -0.075*** 0.222*** (0.005) (0.005) (0.005) ϵn Sw (high TI) -1.839 -1.645 -1.360 ϵn sw (low TI) -1.385 -1.495 -1.804 Observations 5,460,312 5,460,312 5,460,312 Hiring probability from employment log wage 1.725*** 1.724*** 1.717*** (0.010) (0.010) (0.010) log wage × TI -0.114*** -0.098*** 0.160*** (0.008) (0.008) (0.009) ϵθw (high TI) 1.052 1.085 1.045 ϵθw (mean TI) 1.066 1.069 1.082 ϵθw (low TI) 1.059 1.028 1.104 Observations 979,514 979,514 979,514 Share of hires from employment (θ) with high TI 0.347 0.333 0.443 with mean TI 0.382 0.380 0.370 with low TI 0.424 0.436 0.291 Firm-level labor supply elasticity (ϵLw) with high TI 2.288 1.852 0.985 with mean TI 1.689 1.559 1.615 with low TI 1.103 1.277 2.241 Source: SIAB and BHP 1985–2014. Authors’ calculations.
Notes: Clustered standard errors at the person level in parentheses. Routine task intensity (RTI), nonroutine manual task intensity (NRMTI), and nonroutine cognitive task intensity (NRCTI) are standardized with mean zero and standard deviation one. Thus, for instance, workers with low RTI are workers with RTI one standard deviation below the mean, and workers with high RTI are workers with RTI one standard deviation above the mean. Same control variables as in Table 2. Significance:
* p < 0.10,
** p < 0.05,
↵*** p < 0.01.
- Table 5
Labor Supply Elasticity to the Firm by Task Intensities and Collective Bargaining Coverage
High Coverage Low Coverage Baseline Firm-level labor supply elasticity (ϵLw) with high RTI 2.010 1.379 2.288 with high NRMTI 1.510 1.237 1.852 with high NRCTI 1.044 0.387 0.985 Source: SIAB and BHP 1985–2014. Authors’ calculations.
Notes: Clustered standard errors at the person level in parentheses. Routine task intensity (RTI), nonroutine manual task intensity (NRMTI), and nonroutine cognitive task intensity (NRCTI) are standardized with mean zero and standard deviation one. Thus, for instance workers with low RTI are workers with RTI one standard deviation below the mean, and workers with high RTI are workers with RTI one standard deviation above the mean. Same control variables as in Table 2.
High RTI High NRMTI High NRCTI Separation rate elasticity to employment (ϵe sw) Job tenure: 0–3 years -1.066 -0.891 -0.505 Job tenure: 3–10 years -0.916 -0.783 -0.293 Job tenure: 10+ years -0.698 -0.678 -0.191 Separation rate elasticity to nonemployment (ϵn sw) Job tenure: 0–3 years -1.446 -1.254 -1.058 Job tenure: 3–10 years -1.251 -1.132 -0.803 Job tenure: 10+ years -1.092 -1.006 -0.705 Source: SIAB and BHP 1985–2014. Authors’ calculations.
Notes: We use exponential models for this table. The table shows separation rate elasticities for high routine task intensity (RTI), high nonroutine manual task intensity (NRMTI), and high nonroutine cognitive task intensity (NRCTI) workers. To compute the elasticity of high TI workers we add the coefficient of the interaction term to the coefficient of the log wage in the respective estimations. RTI, NRMTI and NRCTI are standardized with mean zero and standard deviation one. Thus, for instance workers with low RTI are workers with RTI one standard deviation below the mean, and workers with high RTI are workers with RTI one standard deviation above the mean. Same control variables as in Table 2.
- Table 7
Nonpecuniary Job Charactersistics by Task Group. Odds Ratios from Regression Analysis
Dependent Variable 1985 1992 1999 2006 2012 NRM NRC NRM NRC NRM NRC NRM NRC NRM NRC Panel A: Physical Working Conditions Work in cold, hot, humid, wet or draught conditions 1.259*** 0.484*** 0.698*** 0.576*** 1.109 0.448*** 1.219* 0.258*** 2.467*** 0.815* (0.078) (0.027) (0.063) (0.053) (0.077) (0.026) (0.127) (0.018) (0.234) (0.097) Work under noisy conditions 1.095 0.470*** 0.655*** 0.512*** 1.019 0.395*** 0.735*** 0.241*** 2.845*** 0.992 (0.067) (0.026) (0.059) (0.047) (0.071) (0.022) (0.077) (0.017) (0.268) (0.115) Work in a physically unfavorable position 0.845*** 0.456*** 0.571*** 0.626*** 0.869** 0.409*** 0.880 0.329*** 2.917*** 1.023 (0.053) (0.027) (0.052) (0.059) (0.060) (0.024) (0.093) (0.024) (0.292) (0.131) Panel B: Mental Working Conditions Work under strong deadline or performance pressure 0.805*** 1.311*** 0.723*** 1.629*** 0.650*** 1.381*** 0.998 1.502*** 0.888 1.115 (0.049) (0.067) (0.054) (0.127) (0.045) (0.073) (0.115) (0.114) (0.086) (0.138) Perceiving the workplace as part of a community 0.890 0.918 0.896 1.319*** 0.774** 0.997 (0.070) (0.056) (0.121) (0.119) (0.096) (0.151) Cooperation with colleagues 0.987 1.315** 0.883 1.245 (0.171) (0.156) (0.136) (0.251) Panel C: Satisfaction Satisfied with job overall 0.650*** 1.550*** 0.888 1.484*** 0.910 1.273*** 0.959 1.242* (0.045) (0.090) (0.079) (0.131) (0.111) (0.097) (0.099) (0.155) Satisfied with promotion opportunities 0.748*** 1.350*** 0.804*** 1.491*** 0.870 1.402*** 0.969 0.980 (0.059) (0.112) (0.057) (0.085) (0.094) (0.099) (0.093) (0.115) Satisfied with work climate 0.855* 1.003 0.776*** 1.013 0.968 1.310*** 0.916 1.037 (0.070) (0.085) (0.058) (0.058) (0.107) (0.092) (0.087) (0.121) Satisfied with the type and content of tasks 0.652*** 1.608*** 0.717*** 1.568*** 0.922 1.570*** 0.947 1.292** (0.058) (0.140) (0.057) (0.093) (0.113) (0.120) (0.098) (0.162) Satisfied with the possibility to use own skills 0.620*** 1.598*** 0.697*** 1.597*** 0.919 1.603*** 1.019 1.267** (0.051) (0.137) (0.053) (0.095) (0.107) (0.119) (0.100) (0.152) Satisfied with the training opportunities 0.742*** 1.424*** 0.801*** 1.542*** 0.794** 1.627*** 1.128 1.292** (0.058) (0.119) (0.057) (0.088) (0.086) (0.114) (0.107) (0.150) Number of observations 10,384 5,949 8,619 4,405 3,274 Source: BIBB 1985, 1992, 1999, 2006, and 2012 waves. Authors’ calculations.
Notes: Odds ratios from ordered logit and logit models. Results are from ordered logit models except for the 1992 wave, where logit models are used for all dependent variables in Panel A. Missing cells indicate questions that were not asked in the particular BIBB wave. We recoded the dependent variables such that the lowest value of a variable shows a low level of approval while the highest value shows the highest level of approval. Standard errors are provided in parentheses. We include controls for federal state, sector, education, age, establishment size, immigrant worker, job tenure, and job tenure squared in the estimation. Routine workers are the base category. Significance:
↵* p < 0.10,
↵** p < 0.05,
↵*** p < 0.01.
RTI NRMTI NRCTI Separation rate to employment log wage (ϵe sw mean TI) -1.454*** -1.376*** -1.420*** (0.011) (0.011) (0.011) log wage × TI -0.333*** -0.195*** 0.383*** (0.009) (0.009) (0.009) ϵe sw (high TI) -1.787 -1.571 -1.037 ϵe sw (low TI) -1.121 -1.181 -1.803 Observations 2,998,063 2,998,063 2,998,063 Separation rate to nonemployment log wage (ϵn sw mean TI) -1.849*** -1.802*** -1.816*** (0.008) (0.008) (0.008) log wage × TI -0.255*** -0.106*** 0.266*** (0.007) (0.007) (0.007) ϵn sw (high TI) -2.104 -1.908 -1.550 ϵn sw (high TI) -1.594 -1.696 -2.082 Observations 5,460,312 5,460,312 5,460,312 Hiring probability from employment log wage 1.725*** 1.724*** 1.717*** (0.010) (0.010) (0.010) log wage × TI -0.114*** -0.098*** 0.160*** (0.008) (0.008) (0.009) ϵθw (high TI) 1.052 1.085 1.045 ϵθw (mean TI) 1.066 1.069 1.082 ϵθw (low TI) 1.059 1.028 1.104 Observations 979,514 979,514 979,514 Share of hires from employment (θ) with high TI 0.347 0.333 0.443 with mean TI 0.382 0.380 0.370 with low TI 0.424 0.436 0.291 Firm-level labor supply elasticity (ϵLw) with high TI 2.729 2.282 1.314 with mean TI 2.086 1.947 2.008 with low TI 1.455 1.625 2.700 Source: SIAB and BHP 1985–2014. Authors’ calculations.
Notes: Clustered standard errors at the person level in parentheses. Routine task intensity (RTI), nonroutine manual task intensity (NRMTI), and nonroutine cognitive task intensity (NRCTI) are standardized with mean zero and standard deviation one. Thus, for instance, workers with low RTI are workers with RTI one standard deviation below the mean, and workers with high RTI are workers with RTI one standard deviation above the mean. Same control variables as in Table 2. Significance:
* p < 0.10,
** p < 0.05,
↵*** p < 0.01.
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