Article Figures & Data
Figures
- Figure 1
Lifetime Prevalence of Domestic Violence around the World
Notes: Data for DV come from the OECD’s Violence against Women Database. Data for labor force participation rates come from the World Bank/ILO. Both variables are for 2019. The world average and Western Europe markers represent population-weighted averages. Western Europe includes Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the UK. The sample is restricted to 118 countries with a population of two million or more.
- Figure 2
Time Patterns for Victim and Child Outcomes Compared to Matched Controls Who Are Never Victimized
Notes: Solid lines are for victims and dashed lines are for a matched set of controls (on age, gender, and immigrant status) that are never victims during the period. See text for definitions of the outcomes.
- Figure 3
Family Structure
Notes: The figures show DiD estimates for being married, conditional on being either married (Panel A) or not married (Panel B) at baseline, for victims around the DV event. Panel C shows number of children. Panel D documents moves across municipalities. See corresponding estimates in Table 1.
- Figure 4
Financial Resources
Notes: The figures show DiD estimates for per capita consumption expenditure for the victim’s household, defined as total household income net of taxes and transfers, subtracting out net savings, and adjusting for household size using EU-scale weights for adults and children (Panel A) and spouse disposable income (Panel B). See corresponding estimates in Table 1.
- Figure 5
Mental Health: Victims and Their Children
Notes: The figures show DiD estimates for mental health diagnosis defined as having at least one mental-health-related visit in the year. See corresponding estimates in Table 2.
- Figure 6
Other Outcomes: Victims
Notes: Doctor visits is the number of visits to a primary care physician in a year; data only start in 2007, so the long-run average impact is for t + 1 to t + 4. Employment refers to earning more than the minimum amount required to qualify for a variety of government-provided employment benefits. Earnings is measured in Norwegian kroner (NOK); the exchange rate is roughly 8 NOK to 1 USD. See corresponding estimates in Table 5.
- Figure 7
Child Event Study Outcomes
Notes: Child protective services and foster care are dummy variables that equal one if child protective services or foster care occurred at any point in the year. Crime is whether a child is charged with a crime and above 16 years old. See corresponding estimates in Table 7.
- Figure 8
Child Educational Outcomes, RD Estimates
Notes: Plots of outcomes with dots representing averages for six-month bins. The estimated lines are based on the underlying, daily data residualized by controlling for predetermined characteristics, victim age, education, immigrant status, gender, and child gender. Gray lines denote pointwise 90 percent confidence intervals. See corresponding estimates in Table 10.
Tables
Dependent Variable DiD Estimate Dep. Mean [% Effect] (1) (2) Long-Run Average Impact (t + 1 to t + 6) Married | married in 2000 (surviving marriages) −0.390** 0.77 (0.013) [−51%] Married | not married in 2000 (new marriages) −0.260** 0.33 (0.011) [−79%] Number of children −0.030 2.27 (0.017) [−13%] Live in same municipality as in 2020 −0.024** 0.64 (0.006) [−4%] Per capita consumption expenditure −29,048** 318,195 (5,994) [−9%] Spousal earnings −122,425** 285,562 (8,471) [−43%] Notes: For marriage outcomes in total, N = 17,267 (35 percent of victims were married in the year 2000); for municipality outcome, N = 16,971; for consumption, N = 16,725 and spousal earnings, N = 16,728. Dependent mean refers to period t – 2, and percent effect is the DiD estimate divided by the dependent mean. Standard errors in parentheses, clustered by victim. Significance: *p < 0.10, **p < 0.05.
Dependent Variable DiD Estimate Dep. Mean [% Effect] (1) (2) Immediate Impact (t = 0) Victim mental health 0.151** 0.43 (0.009) [35%] Child mental health 0.033* 0.17 (0.019) [19%] Long-Run Average Impact (t + 1 to t + 4) Victim mental health 0.028* 0.43 (0.015) [7%] Child mental health 0.026* 0.17 (0.015) [15%] Notes: N = 8,406 for victims, N = 15,557 for children. For mental health visits, data only start in 2007, so the long-run average impact is for t + 1 to t + 4. Mental health diagnosis is defined as having at least one mental-health-related visit in the year. Dependent mean refers to period t – 2, and percent effect is the DiD estimate divided by the dependent mean. Standard errors in parentheses, clustered by victim. Significance: *p < 0.10, **p < 0.05.
Dependent Variable: DiD Estimate SE Dep. Mean % Effect (1) (2) (3) (4) Panel A: Victim Immediate impact (t = 0) Mood disorders 0.140** 0.009 0.230 61% Addiction disorders 0.000 0.004 0.058 0% Depression disorders 0.068** 0.008 0.188 36% Social problems 0.096** 0.006 0.063 152% Sleep disorders 0.019** 0.005 0.055 35% Anxiety disorders 0.134** 0.008 0.197 68% Long-run average impact (t + 1 to t + 4) Mood disorders 0.037** 0.014 0.230 16% Addiction disorders 0.005 0.007 0.058 9% Depression disorders 0.012 0.013 0.188 6% Social problems 0.011 0.009 0.063 17% Sleep disorders 0.002 0.008 0.055 4% Anxiety disorders 0.044** 0.014 0.197 22% Panel B: Children Immediate impact (t = 0) Mood disorders 0.013** 0.004 0.048 27% Addiction disorders −0.010 0.011 0.014 −71% Depression disorders 0.019 0.012 0.026 73% Social problems −0.007 0.018 0.023 −30% Sleep disorders 0.006** 0.003 0.014 43% Anxiety disorders 0.009** 0.004 0.035 22% Long-run average impact (t + 1 to t + 4) Mood disorders 0.024** 0.010 0.048 50% Addiction disorders 0.005 0.011 0.014 36% Depression disorders 0.023* 0.013 0.026 89% Social problems −0.028 0.023 0.023 −121% Sleep disorders 0.009** 0.004 0.014 64% Anxiety disorders 0.017* 0.010 0.035 49% Notes: See notes to Table 2. For mental health visits, data only start in 2007, so the long-run average impact is for t + 1 to t + 4. Mental health diagnosis defined as having at least one mental-health-related visit in the year for a specific disorder. Dependent mean refers to period t – 2, and percent effect is the DiD estimate divided by the dependent mean. Standard errors in parentheses. Significance: *p < 0.10, **p < 0.05.
Victim Employed in 2000 Mental Health Visit in 2007 Long Relationship (>4 Yrs. in 2000) Dependent Variable Baseline Yes No Yes No Yes No (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Immediate Impact (t = 0) Victim mental health 0.152** 0.176** 0.118** 0.086** 0.191** 0.130** 0.017 (0.009) (0.013) (0.013) (0.015) (0.012) (0.013) (0.013) Child mental health 0.033* 0.035 0.034** 0.039** 0.030 0.037 0.026** (0.019) (0.027) (0.011) (0.018) (0.026) (0.033) (0.011) Long-Run Average Impact (t + 1 to t + 4) Victim mental health 0.026** 0.030 0.026 −0.014 0.056** 0.028 0.034 (0.011) (0.021) (0.023) (0.027) (0.020) (0.018) (0.022) Child mental health 0.026* 0.019 0.044** 0.030 0.030 0.021 0.024 (0.015) (0.021) (0.018) (0.034) (0.018) (0.020) (0.019) Notes: See notes to Table 2. Splits based on values prior to a DV event, which is the year 2000 for Columns 2, 3, 6, and 7 and the year 2007 for Columns 4 and 5 (since for mental health visits, data only start in 2007). Dependent mean refers to period t – 2, and percent effect is the DiD estimate divided by the dependent mean. Standard errors in parentheses. Significance: *p < 0.10, **p < 0.05.
Dependent Variable DiD Estimate Dep. Mean [% Effect] Immediate Impact (t = 0) Doctor visits 1.31** 12.3 (0.23) [11%] Employment −0.006 0.61 (0.004) [−1%] Earnings in NOK −5,638** 225,149 (1,524) [−3%] Disability insurance 0.014** 0.21 (0.003) [7%] Long-Run Average Impact (t + 1 to t + 6) Doctor visits 0.362 12.3 (0.363) [3%] Employment −0.025** 0.61 (0.004) [−4%] Earnings in NOK −11,920** 225,149 (3,119) [−5%] Disability insurance 0.023** 0.21 (0.006) [11%] Notes: N = 10,223 (doctor visits); N = 17,267 (employment, earnings, disability insurance). For doctor visits, data only start in 2007, so the long-run average impact is for t + 1 to t + 4. Dependent mean refers to period t – 2, and percent effect is the DiD estimate divided by the dependent mean. Standard errors in parentheses, clustered by victim. Significance: *p < 0.10, **p < 0.05.
Dependent Variable Baseline Female Male (1) (2) (3) Immediate Impact (t = 0) Victim mental health 0.152** 0.167** 0.075** (0.009) (0.010) (0.025) Doctor visits 1.31** 1.49** 0.71 (0.23) (0.27) (0.50) Employment −0.006 −0.004 −0.018* (0.004) (0.005) (0.010) Earnings in NOK −5,638** −5,794** −4,091 (1,524) (1,489) (5,273) Disability insurance 0.014** 0.017** 0.000 (0.003) (0.004) (0.008) Long-Run Average Impact (t + 1 to t + 6) Victim mental health 0.026** 0.042** −0.045 (0.011) (0.017) (0.039) Doctor visits 0.362 0.243 −0.570 (0.363) (0.648) (1.05) Employment −0.025** −0.023** −0.045** (0.008) (0.008) (0.018) Earnings in NOK −11,920** −8,999** −29,021** (3,119) (3,170) (10,505) Disability insurance 0.023** 0.026** 0.018 (0.006) (0.007) (0.014) Notes: Number of observations by gender: mental health: 6,932 females, 1,474 males; doctor visits: 8,358 females, 1,865 males; employment, disability insurance: 14,228 females, 3,039 males; earnings: 14,098 females, 3,026 males. Baseline estimates come from Tables 2 and 5. Standard errors in parentheses, clustered by victim. Significance: *p < 0.10, **p < 0.05.
Dependent Variable DiD Estimate Dep. Mean [% Effect] (1) (2) Immediate Impact (t = 0) Child protective services 0.064** 0.102 (0.010) [63%] Foster care 0.002 0.019 (0.005) [11%] Charged with a crime 0.020** 0.037 (0.008) [54%] Long-Run Average Impact (t + 1 to t + 6) Child protective services 0.031** 0.102 (0.012) [31%] Foster care 0.008 0.019 (0.006) [42%] Charged with a crime 0.006 0.037 (0.007) [16%] Notes: N = 41,828 (child protective services, foster care), N = 27,827 (charged and aged 16 or above). Dependent mean refers to period t – 2, and percent effect is the DiD estimate divided by the dependent mean. Standard errors in parentheses, clustered by victim. Significance: *p < 0.10, **p < 0.05.
Dependent Variable OLS OLS w/ Additional Controls (2) + Lagged Outcome Baseline DiD Dep. Mean (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Immediate Impact (t = 0) Victim mental health 0.389** 0.382** 0.297** 0.151** 0.43 (0.007) (0.007) (0.007) (0.009) Employment −0.125** −0.096** −0.028** −0.006 0.61 (0.005) (0.005) (0.004) (0.004) Child mental health 0.099** 0.091** 0.060** 0.033* 0.17 (0.004) (0.004) (0.004) (0.019) Child protective services 0.176** 0.145** 0.113** 0.064** 0.10 (0.002) (0.003) (0.002) (0.010) Long-Run Average Impact (t + 1 to t + 6) Victim mental health 0.171** 0.158** 0.121** 0.028* 0.43 (0.004) (0.004) (0.004) (0.015) Employment −0.133** −0.098** −0.058** −0.025** 0.61 (0.005) (0.004) (0.004) (0.008) Child mental health 0.069** 0.058** 0.046** 0.026* 0.17 (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) (0.015) Child protective services 0.119** 0.099** 0.087** 0.031** 0.10 (0.001) (0.002) (0.002) (0.012) Notes: N = 20,151 (mental health visits); N = 20,446 (doctor visits); N = 32,902 (employment, disability insurance); N = 28,304 (earnings). DiD only for victims (half of the sample). OLS is based on a sample of non-victims matched to controls; for details, see the text. Column 4 repeats estimates from Tables 2 and 5. For doctor visits and mental health visits, data only start in 2007, so the long-run average impact is for t + 1 to t + 4. Additional controls include year, years of education, age, gender, immigrant status, married, and number of children. Lagged outcome is the average of six periods before treatment. Dependent mean refers to period t – 2. Standard errors in parentheses, clustered by victim. Significance: *p < 0.10, **p < 0.05.
Dependent Variable First Difference (Relative to −2) First Difference w/ Controls Baseline DiD Dep. Mean (1) (2) (3) (4) Immediate Impact (t = 0) Victim mental health 0.176** 0.162** 0.151** 0.43 (0.007) (0.008) (0.009) Victim employed 0.003 −0.004 −0.006 0.61 (0.005) (0.006) (0.004) Child mental health 0.044** 0.025** 0.033* 0.17 (0.004) (0.004) (0.019) Child protective services 0.074** 0.033** 0.064** 0.10 (0.004) (0.004) (0.010) Long-Run Average Impact (t + 1 to t + 6) Victim mental health 0.051** 0.034** 0.028* 0.43 (0.006) (0.006) (0.015) Victim employed −0.014** −0.025** −0.025** 0.61 (0.004) (0.005) (0.008) Child mental health 0.074** 0.033** 0.026* 0.17 (0.004) (0.004) (0.015) Child protective services 0.084** 0.078** 0.031** 0.10 (0.003) (0.002) (0.012) Notes: N in Columns 1 and 2 for immediate and long run, respectively, are 19,429 and 71,379 (mental health visits), 34,534 and 97,732 (employment), 36,948 and 147,321 (child mental health visits), 83,656 and 244,066 (child protective services). Column 2 adds in controls for age, year, gender, and immigrant status. Baseline DiD estimates taken from Tables 2, 5, and 6. Standard errors in parentheses, clustered by victim. Significance: *p < 0.10, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01.
RD Estimates Dep. Mean [Percent Effect] National exam score −0.077** −0.42 (0.030) [−18%] On-time completion of 1st year of high school −0.047** 0.59 (0.023) [−8%] Notes: N = 19,583 children for national exam score; N = 13,564 children for on-time completion of first year of high school. RD estimates using triangular weights and a window of ± 6 years around the event. National exam score is normalized to be mean zero and standard deviation one for the entire sample of test takers. Control variables include years of education, age, gender, immigrant status, married and number of children for the victim and child gender. Standard errors in parentheses, clustered by victim. Significance: *p < 0.10, **p < 0.05.
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