Article Figures & Data
Figures
- Figure 1
Monthly Suicide Rate per 100,000 Population, 1990–2019
Notes: Based on annualized suicide rates from the multiple cause of death records from the National Center of Health Statistics, 1990–2019.
- Figure 2
School Calendars Based on Relative Foot Traffic
Notes: Based on SafeGraph foot traffic at K–12 schools in 2019 aggregated to the county level. Relative foot traffic in August compares the aggregate of average nonholiday weekday foot traffic in August to average no-holiday weekday foot traffic in September and October. Relative foot traffic in June compares average nonholiday weekday foot traffic in June to average nonholiday weekday foot traffic in April and May.
- Figure 3
School Start Dates and Historic Seasonality of Youth Suicide, 1990–2019
Notes: Based on point estimates and 95 percent confidence intervals of the differences in suicide rates for calendar month of the year from Poisson regression models using suicides from 1990–2019. January is the omitted category. School calendar start dates are based on terciles of K–12 August foot traffic relative to foot traffic in September and October. All models control for county fixed and year fixed effects and cluster at the state level. Population*days in a month is used as an exposure variable.
- Figure 4
Historic Seasonality of Suicides, 1990–2019 vs. 2020
Notes: Based on estimates and 95 percent confidence intervals of the differences in suicide rates for calendar month of the year from Poisson regression models using suicides from 1990–2019. January is the omitted category. All models control for county fixed and year fixed effects and economic conditions and cluster at the state level. Population*days in a month is used as an exposure variable.
- Figure 5
Heterogeneity in Estimated Effect of K–12 School Foot Traffic on Youth (Ages 12–18) Suicides, by Demographic Characteristics and Suicide Circumstances
Notes: The figure presents estimated treatment effects and 90 percent confidence intervals around the estimated treatment effects of a move from the fifth to 95th percentile of relative school foot traffic on youth suicides using monthly data for the period 2019–2020. The first two estimates present results by gender, the next three by race/ethnicity, the next two by age, the next two by whether the suicide was precipitated by intentional drug use or not, and the final two by whether the suicide involved a firearm. All regressions included county fixed effects, year fixed effects, summer month fixed effects, census division-by-year fixed effects, and the full set of observable controls.
- Figure 6
Bullying Searches on Google and School Foot Traffic, 2019–2022
Notes: Based on aggregate data collected from SafeGraph on foot traffic and searches for “My child is bullied” collected from Google Trends.
- Figure 7
Bullying and Cyber-Bullying
Notes: Based on self-reported bully victimization rates in the Youth Risk Behavior Survey, 2013–2021. The 2021 survey was administered in fall of 2021, while the other surveys are administered in the spring.
Tables
- Table 1
Poisson Estimates of Effect of County-Level K–12 Foot Traffic on Youth and Young Adult Suicides 2019 vs. 2020
Youth Ages 12–18 Young Adults Ages 19–25 2019 2020 2019 2020 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) K–12 foot traffic 0.169** 0.166** 0.219*** 0.234*** 0.0454 0.0489 −0.0308 −0.0438 (0.0687) (0.0693) (0.0604) (0.0879) (0.0423) (0.0429) (0.0361) (0.0486) Restaurant–bar foot traffic −0.0558 0.110 0.0640 0.0731 (0.0747) (0.153) (0.0551) (0.0570) Any COVID deaths 0.0555 0.0235 (0.0549) (0.0455) County death rate 1.633*** 0.287 (0.594) (0.534) Observations 37,704 37,704 37,704 37,704 37,704 37,704 37,704 37,704 County fixed effects? Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Restaurant–bar foot traffic? No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes COVID-19 deaths? No No No Yes No No No Yes Notes: Standard errors are clustered at the state level. Each regression uses population in each county times the number of days in a month as an exposure variable. COVID-19 deaths are coded as zero until the first documented COVID-19 related deaths, which occurred in March 2020. *p < 0.1, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01.
- Table 2
Poisson Estimates of Effect of County-Level K–12 Foot Traffic on Youth and Young Adult Suicides, Pooled 2019 and 2020
Youth Ages 12–18 Young Adults Ages 19–25 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) K–12 foot traffic 0.163*** 0.198*** 0.231*** 0.134* 0.149** −0.0231 −0.00427 −0.00694 0.00430 0.00377 (0.0549) (0.0580) (0.0556) (0.0740) (0.0717) (0.0213) (0.0191) (0.0241) (0.0239) (0.0240) Restaurant foot traffic 0.0773 0.155*** 0.154*** 0.0790** 0.0689* 0.0635* (0.0560) (0.0556) (0.0545) (0.0361) (0.0371) (0.0374) Any COVID deaths 0.0786 0.0835 0.0694 0.0497 0.0465 0.0455 (0.0513) (0.0512) (0.0527) (0.0432) (0.0437) (0.0441) County death rate 0.913** 0.717 1.048** 0.282 0.319 0.265 (0.461) (0.453) (0.514) (0.484) (0.488) (0.453) Personal income −0.0639 −0.0564 0.0174 −0.288* −0.290* −0.155 (0.210) (0.208) (0.198) (0.149) (0.149) (0.180) Unemployment rate 0.0389** 0.0400** 0.0447*** −0.00111 −0.00130 0.00259 (0.0174) (0.0171) (0.0165) (0.0110) (0.0111) (0.0103) Divorce rate 0.0979 0.0919 0.196* 0.115* 0.116* 0.118 (0.134) (0.132) (0.109) (0.0617) (0.0618) (0.0765) Observations 74,660 74,660 74,660 74,660 74,660 74,660 74,660 74,660 74,660 74,660 County fixed effects? Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year fixed effects? No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Restaurant–bar foot traffic? No No Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes COVID-19 deaths? No No Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Macro econ controls? No No Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Summer months FE? No No No Yes Yes No No No Yes Yes Census division-by-year FE? No No No No Yes No No No No Yes Notes: Standard errors are clustered at the state level. Each regression uses population in each county times the number of days in a month as an exposure variable. COVID-19 deaths are coded as zero until the first documented COVID-19 related deaths, which occurred in March 2020. *p < 0.1, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01.
- Table 3
Exploration of Nonlinear Effects of K–12 School Foot Traffic on Youth and Young Adult Suicides, Pooled 2019 and 2020
Youth Ages 12–18 Young Adults Ages 19–25 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) K–12 foot traffic ≥ 80% 0.251*** 0.148* 0.162** −0.0130 0.00203 −0.000518 (0.0591) (0.0778) (0.0754) (0.0371) (0.0392) (0.0393) 50% ≤ K–12 foot traffic <80% 0.200*** 0.107 0.111 −0.0291 −0.0153 −0.0156 (0.0708) (0.0868) (0.0863) (0.0282) (0.0327) (0.0327) 20% ≤ K–12 foot traffic <50% 0.105* 0.0735 0.0717 −0.0302 −0.0259 −0.0289 (0.0576) (0.0606) (0.0598) (0.0234) (0.0235) (0.0236) Observations 74,660 74,660 74,660 74,660 74,660 74,660 County fixed effects? Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year fixed effects? Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Restaurant–bar foot traffic? Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes COVID-19 deaths? Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Macro econ controls? Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Summer months FE? No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Census division-by-year FE? No No Yes No No Yes Notes: Standard errors are clustered at the state level. Each regression uses population in each county times the number of days in a month as an exposure variable. COVID-19 deaths are coded as zero until the first documented COVID-19 related deaths, which occurred in March 2020. The reference group K–12 school foot traffic less than 20 percent of the January–February 2020 level. *p < 0.1, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01.
- Table 4
Estimated Effects of School Foot Traffic on Youth and Young Adult Suicides: Weekdays versus Weekends
Youth Ages 12–18 Young Adults Ages 19–25 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) Panel I: Weekdays (Monday–Thursday) K–12 foot traffic 0.165** 0.243*** 0.246*** 0.121 0.138 0.0102 0.0139 −0.000234 0.0260 0.0264 (0.0646) (0.0648) (0.0668) (0.0905) (0.0891) (0.0223) (0.0225) (0.0261) (0.0287) (0.0282) Panel II: Weekends (F-Sun) K–12 foot traffic 0.162** 0.125 0.204** 0.141 0.152 −0.0853** −0.0428 −0.0256 −0.0653 −0.0666 (0.0703) (0.0787) (0.0941) (0.122) (0.121) (0.0369) (0.0346) (0.0483) (0.0520) (0.0540) Observations 74,660 74,660 74,660 74,660 74,660 74,660 74,660 74,660 74,660 74,660 County fixed effects? Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year fixed effects? No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Restaurant/bar foot traffic? No No Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes COVID-19 deaths? No No Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Macro econ controls? No No Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Summer months FE? No No No Yes Yes No No No Yes Yes Census division-by-year FE? No No No No Yes No No No No Yes Notes: Standard errors are clustered at the state level. Each regression uses population in each county times the number of days in a month as an exposure variable. COVID-19 deaths are coded as zero until the first documented COVID-19 related deaths, which occurred in March 2020. *p < 0.1, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01.
Bullying Cyber Bullying School Bullying Bullying Cyber Bullying School Bullying (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) K–12 foot traffic 0.49*** 0.39*** 0.73*** (0.065) (0.09) (0.12) K–12 foot traffic ≥ 80% 0.42*** 0.35*** 0.66*** (0.04) (0.07) (0.10) 50% ≤ K–12 foot traffic <80% 0.32*** 0.32*** 0.53*** (0.023) (0.06) (0.07) 20% ≤ K–12 foot traffic <50% 0.07*** 0.04*** 0.14*** (0.02) (0.04) (0.04) Observations State FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Year FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes State-Level Controls Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Notes: Standard errors are clustered at the state level. Each estimate is from a Poisson regression. Search terms are “bullying,” “cyber bullying,” and “school bullying.” The reference group K–12 school foot traffic less than 20 percent of the January–February 2020 level for Columns 4–6. State-level controls include COVID-19 deaths, macroeconomic controls, and restaurant–bar foot traffic. *p < 0.1, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01.
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