Skip to main content

Main menu

  • Home
  • Content
    • Current
    • Ahead of print
    • Archive
    • Supplementary Material
    • Free Issue
    • Special Issues
  • Info for
    • Authors
    • Subscribers
    • Institutions
    • Advertisers
  • About Us
    • About Us
    • Editorial Board
  • Connect
    • Feedback
    • Help
    • Request JHR at your library
    • Alerts
  • Announcements
  • Special Issue
  • Other Publications
    • UW Press Journals

User menu

  • Register
  • Subscribe
  • My alerts
  • Log in
  • My Cart

Search

  • Advanced search
Journal of Human Resources
  • Other Publications
    • UW Press Journals
  • Register
  • Subscribe
  • My alerts
  • Log in
  • My Cart
Journal of Human Resources

Advanced Search

  • Home
  • Content
    • Current
    • Ahead of print
    • Archive
    • Supplementary Material
    • Free Issue
    • Special Issues
  • Info for
    • Authors
    • Subscribers
    • Institutions
    • Advertisers
  • About Us
    • About Us
    • Editorial Board
  • Connect
    • Feedback
    • Help
    • Request JHR at your library
    • Alerts
  • Announcements
  • Special Issue
  • Follow uwp on Twitter
  • Follow JHR on Bluesky
Research ArticleArticles

A Watershed Moment

The Clean Water Act and Birth Weight

Patrick Flynn and View ORCID ProfileMichelle Marcus
Journal of Human Resources, November 2025, 60 (6) 1915-1936; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.0622-12369R2
Patrick Flynn
Patrick Flynn is a graduate student from the Department of Economics at Vanderbilt University.
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
Michelle Marcus
Michelle Marcus is an Associate Professor from the Department of Economics at Vanderbilt University and a Research Associate at the National Bureau of Economic Research .
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
  • ORCID record for Michelle Marcus
  • For correspondence: michelle.marcus{at}vanderbilt.edu
  • Article
  • Figures & Data
  • Supplemental
  • Info & Metrics
  • References
  • PDF
Loading

References

  1. ↵
    1. Abdel-Raouf, N.,
    2. A.A. Al-Homaidan, and
    3. I.B.M. Ibraheem
    . 2012. “Microalgae and Wastewater Treatment.” Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences 19(3):257–75.
    OpenUrlPubMed
    1. Almond,
    2. Douglas,
    3. Kenneth Y. Chay, and
    4. David S. Lee
    . 2005. “The Costs of Low Birth Weight.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 120(3):1031–83.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  2. ↵
    1. Almond, Douglas, and
    2. Bhashkar Mazumder
    . 2011. “Health Capital and the Prenatal Environment: The Effect of Ramadan Observance During Pregnancy.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 3(4):56–85.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  3. ↵
    1. Alsan, Marcella, and
    2. Claudia Goldin
    . 2019. “Watersheds in Child Mortality: The Role of Effective Water and Sewerage Infrastructure, 1880–1920.” Journal of Political Economy 127(2):586–638.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
    1. Anderson,
    2. D. Mark,
    3. Kerwin Kofi Charles, and
    4. Daniel I. Rees
    . 2022. “Re-Examining the Contribution of Public Health Efforts to the Decline in Urban Mortality.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 14(2):126–57.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  4. Arizona Department of Water Resources. 2020. “CWS Service Area.” Technical Report.
  5. Arkansas GIS Office. 2013. “Public Water Systems.” Technical Report.
  6. ↵
    1. Beach, Brian,
    2. Joseph Ferrie,
    3. Martin Saavedra, and
    4. Werner Troesken
    . 2016. “Typhoid Fever, Water Quality, and Human Capital Formation.” Journal of Economic History 76(1):41–75.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  7. ↵
    1. Behrman, Jere R., and
    2. Mark R. Rosenzweig
    . 2004. “Returns to Birthweight.” Review of Economics and Statistics 86(2):586–601.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
    1. Bharadwaj, Prashant,
    2. Petter Lundborg, and
    3. Dan-Olof Rooth
    . 2018. “Birth Weight in the Long Run.” Journal of Human Resources 53(1):189–231.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  8. ↵
    1. Black, Sandra E.,
    2. Aline Bütikofer,
    3. Paul J. Devereux, and
    4. Kjell G. Salvanes
    . 2019. “This Is Only a Test? Long-Run and Intergenerational Impacts of Prenatal Exposure to Radioactive Fallout.” Review of Economics and Statistics 101(3):531–46.
    OpenUrl
    1. Black,
    2. Sandra E.,
    3. Paul J. Devereux, and
    4. Kjell G. Salvanes
    . 2007. “From the Cradle to the Labor Market? The Effect of Birth Weight on Adult Outcomes.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 122(1):409–39.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  9. ↵
    1. Callaway, Brantly, and
    2. Pedro H.C. Sant’Anna
    . 2020. “did: Difference in Differences.” 2020. R package version 2.0.1.906.
    1. Callaway, Brantly, and
    2. Pedro H.C. Sant’Anna
    . 2021. “Difference-in-Differences with Multiple Time Periods.” Journal of Econometrics 225(2):200–230.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  10. ↵
    1. Callaway, Brantly,
    2. Andrew Goodman-Bacon, and
    3. Pedro H.C. Sant’Anna
    . 2021. “Difference-in-Differences with a Continuous Treatment.” https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2107.02637
  11. ↵
    1. Camacho, Adriana.
    2008. “Stress and Birth Weight: Evidence from Terrorist Attacks.” 2008. American Economic Review 98(2):511–15.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  12. ↵
    1. Chahal,
    2. Charndeep,
    3. Ben Van Den Akker,
    4. Fiona Young,
    5. Christopher Franco,
    6. J. Blackbeard, and
    7. Paul Monis
    . 2016. “Pathogen and Particle Associations in Wastewater: Significance and Implications for Treatment and Disinfection Processes.” Advances in Applied Microbiology 97:63–119.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  13. ↵
    1. Colford, John M. Jr.,
    2. Sharon Roy,
    3. Michael J. Beach,
    4. Allen Hightower,
    5. Susan E. Shaw, and
    6. Timothy J. Wade
    . 2006. “A Review of Household Drinking Water Intervention Trials and an Approach to the Estimation of Endemic Waterborne Gastroenteritis in the United States.” Journal of Water and Health 4(S2):71–88.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  14. ↵
    1. Copeland, Claudia.
    2016. “Clean Water Act: A Summary of the Law.” Technical Report. Congressional Research Service.
  15. CT State Department of Public Health. 2020. “Buffered Community Public Water Supply Service Areas.” Technical Report.
  16. ↵
    1. Currie, Janet,
    2. Joshua Graff Zivin,
    3. Katherine Meckel,
    4. Matthew Neidell, and
    5. Wolfram Schlenker
    . 2013. “Something in the Water: Contaminated Drinking Water and Infant Health.” Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue Canadienne d’Économique 46(3):791–810.
    OpenUrl
  17. ↵
    1. Cutler, David, and
    2. Grant Miller
    . 2005. “The Role of Public Health Improvements in Health Advances: The Twentieth-Century United States.” Demography 42(1):1–22.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  18. ↵
    1. Daigger, Glen T.
    1998. Upgrading Wastewater Treatment Plants, Volume 2. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
  19. ↵
    1. Dieter, Cheryl A.
    2018. “Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2015.” Circular 1441. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey.
  20. ↵
    1. Ferrie, Joseph P., and
    2. Werner Troesken
    . 2008. “Water and Chicago’s Mortality Transition, 1850–1925.” Explorations in Economic History 45(1):1–16.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  21. ↵
    1. Figlio, David,
    2. Jonathan Guryan,
    3. Krzysztof Karbownik, and
    4. Jeffrey Roth
    . 2014. “The Effects of Poor Neonatal Health on Children’s Cognitive Development.” American Economic Review 104(12):3921–55.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  22. ↵
    1. Flynn, Patrick, and
    2. Tucker Smith
    . 2022. “Rivers, Lakes and Revenue Streams: The Heterogeneous Effects of Clean Water Act Grants on Local Spending.” Journal of Public Economics 212:104711.
    OpenUrl
    1. Forstall, Richard.
    1995. “Population of Counties by Decennial Census: 1900 to 1990.” Technical Report.
  23. ↵
    1. Freeman, A. Myrick.
    2010. “Water Pollution Policy.” In Public Policies for Environmental Protection, ed. Paul Portney and Robert N. Stavins, 179–224. New York: Routledge.
  24. ↵
    1. Goodman-Bacon, Andrew.
    2021. “Difference-in-Differences with Variation in Treatment Timing.” Journal of Econometrics 225(2):254–77.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  25. ↵
    1. Grossman, Daniel S., and
    2. David J.G. Slusky
    . 2019. “The Impact of the Flint Water Crisis on Fertility.” Demography 56(6):2005–31.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  26. ↵
    1. Hendren, Nathaniel, and
    2. Ben Sprung-Keyser
    . 2020. “A Unified Welfare Analysis of Government Policies.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 135(3):1209–318.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  27. ↵
    1. Hines, N. William.
    1966. “Nor Any Drop to Drink: Public Regulation of Water Quality Part I: State Pollution Control Programs.” Iowa Law Review 52:186–235.
    OpenUrl
  28. ↵
    1. Isen, Adam,
    2. Maya Rossin-Slater, and
    3. W. Reed Walker
    . 2017. “Every Breath You Take—Every Dollar You’ll Make: The Long-Term Consequences of the Clean Air Act of 1970.” Journal of Political Economy 125(3):848–902.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
    1. Jerch, Rhiannon L.
    2018. “The Local Consequences of Federal Mandates: Evidence from the Clean Water Act.” Technical Report, Working paper. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University.
  29. Kansas Water Office. 2020. “Public Water Supply System.” Technical Report.
  30. ↵
    1. Keiser, David A., and
    2. Joseph S. Shapiro
    . 2019a. “Consequences of the Clean Water Act and the Demand for Water Quality.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 134(1):349–96.
    OpenUrl
    1. Keiser, David A., and
    2. Joseph S. Shapiro
    . 2019b. “US Water Pollution Regulation over the Past Half Century: Burning Waters to Crystal Springs?” Journal of Economic Perspectives 33 (4):51–75.
    OpenUrl
  31. ↵
    1. Keiser, David A.,
    2. Catherine L. Kling, and
    3. Joseph S. Shapiro
    . 2019. “The Low but Uncertain Measured Benefits of US Water Quality Policy.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116(12):5262–69.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  32. ↵
    1. Kuwayama, Yusuke,
    2. Sheila Olmstead, and
    3. Jiameng Zheng
    . 2018. “The Value of Water Quality: Separating Amenity and Recreational Benefits.” Technical Report, Working Paper at the University of Texas, Austin LBJ School of Public Policy.
  33. ↵
    1. Lyon, Randolph M., and
    2. Scott Farrow
    . 1995. “An Economic Analysis of Clean Water Act Issues.” Water Resources Research 31(1):213–23.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  34. ↵
    1. Marcus, Michelle.
    2022. “Testing the Water: Drinking Water Quality, Public Notification, and Child Outcomes.” Review of Economics and Statistics 104(6):1289–988.
    OpenUrl
  35. ↵
    1. Marcus, Michelle, and
    2. Patrick Flynn
    . 2023. “Data and Code for: A Watershed Moment: The Clean Water Act and Birth Weight.” Ann Arbor, MI: ICPSR. https://doi.org/10.3886/E183922V1
  36. ↵
    National Center for Health Statistics. 1968–1988a. “Natality Detail Data.”
  37. ↵
    National Center for Health Statistics. 1968–1988b. “Vital Statistics Compressed Mortality File.”
  38. ↵
    National Environmental Research Center. 1972. “Upgrading Existing Wastewater Treatment Plants.” Technical Report.
  39. NCDEQ. 2017. “Public Water Supply Water Sources.” Technical Report.
  40. NJDEP. 2004. “NJDEP Public Community Water Purveyor Service Areas 1998.” Technical Report.
  41. PASDA. 2015. “Public Water Supply 2015.” Technical Report.
  42. ↵
    1. Raff, Zach, and
    2. Dietrich Earnhart
    . 2019. “The Effects of Clean Water Act Enforcement on Environmental Employment.” Resource and Energy Economics 57:1–17.
    OpenUrl
  43. ↵
    1. Rassier, Dylan G., and
    2. Dietrich Earnhart
    . 2010. “The Effect of Clean Water Regulation on Profitability: Testing the Porter Hypothesis.” Land Economics 86(2):329–44.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
    1. Reynolds, Kelly A.,
    2. Kristina D. Mena, and
    3. Charles P. Gerba
    . 2008. “Risk of Waterborne Illness via Drinking Water in the United States.” In Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, ed. D.M. Whitacre, 117–58. New York: Springer.
  44. ↵
    1. Royer, Heather.
    2009. “Separated at Girth: US Twin Estimates of the Effects of Birth Weight.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 1(1):49–85.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  45. ↵
    1. Rubin, Kenneth.
    1985. “Efficient Investments in Wastewater Treatment Plants.” Washington, DC: US Congress, Congressional Budget Office, U.S. Government Printing Office.
    1. Solley, Wayne B.,
    2. Charles F. Merk, and
    3. Robert R. Pierce
    . 1988. “Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 1985.” Technical Report.
  46. ↵
    1. Stoddard, Andrew,
    2. Jon B. Harcum,
    3. Robert K. Bastian,
    4. Jonathan T. Simpson, and
    5. James R. Pagenkopf
    . 2003. Municipal Wastewater Treatment: Evaluating Improvements in National Water Quality. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
  47. Texas Commission on Environmental Quality. 2020. “Public Drinking Water Supply.” Technical Report.
  48. ↵
    1. Toccalino, Patricia, and
    2. Jessica A. Hopple
    . 2010. “The Quality of Our Nation’s Waters: Quality of Water from Public-Supply Wells in the United States 1993–2007: Overview of Major Findings.” Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey.
  49. ↵
    1. Troesken, Werner.
    2001. “Race, Disease, and the Provision of Water in American Cities, 1889–1921.” Journal of Economic History 61(3):750–76.
    OpenUrlWeb of Science
  50. ↵
    1. Troesken, Werner.
    . 2002. “The Limits of Jim Crow: Race and the Provision of Water and Sewerage Services in American Cities, 1880–1925.” Journal of Economic History 62(3):734–72.
    OpenUrlWeb of Science
  51. ↵
    USEPA. 1968–1988. “STORET Legacy.”
  52. ↵
    USEPA. 1980. Handbook of Procedures: Construction Grants Program for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Works. Washington, DC: USEPA.
  53. ↵
    USEPA. 1997. “1995 Community Water System Survey.” Volume 1.
  54. ↵
    USEPA. 1998. “How Wastewater Treatment Works.” Technical Report.
  55. ↵
    USEPA. 2000. “Progress in Water Quality: An Evaluation of the National Investment in Municipal Wastewater Treatment.” Technical Report.
  56. ↵
    USEPA. 2001. “The National Costs to Implement TMDLs.” Technical Report.
  57. ↵
    USEPA. 2002. “The Clean Water and Drinking Water Infrastructure Gap Analysis.” Technical Report.
  58. ↵
    USEPA. 2004. “Primer for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Systems.” Technical Report EPA 832-R-04–001.
  59. ↵
    1. Watson, Tara.
    2006. “Public Health Investments and the Infant Mortality Gap: Evidence from Federal Sanitation Interventions on US Indian Reservations.” Journal of Public Economics 90(8–9):1537–60.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
PreviousNext
Back to top

In this issue

Journal of Human Resources: 60 (6)
Journal of Human Resources
Vol. 60, Issue 6
1 Nov 2025
  • Table of Contents
  • Table of Contents (PDF)
  • Cover (PDF)
  • Index by author
  • Front Matter (PDF)
Print
Download PDF
Article Alerts
Sign In to Email Alerts with your Email Address
Email Article

Thank you for your interest in spreading the word on Journal of Human Resources.

NOTE: We only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it, and that it is not junk mail. We do not capture any email address.

Enter multiple addresses on separate lines or separate them with commas.
A Watershed Moment
(Your Name) has sent you a message from Journal of Human Resources
(Your Name) thought you would like to see the Journal of Human Resources web site.
Citation Tools
A Watershed Moment
Patrick Flynn, Michelle Marcus
Journal of Human Resources Nov 2025, 60 (6) 1915-1936; DOI: 10.3368/jhr.0622-12369R2

Citation Manager Formats

  • BibTeX
  • Bookends
  • EasyBib
  • EndNote (tagged)
  • EndNote 8 (xml)
  • Medlars
  • Mendeley
  • Papers
  • RefWorks Tagged
  • Ref Manager
  • RIS
  • Zotero
Share
A Watershed Moment
Patrick Flynn, Michelle Marcus
Journal of Human Resources Nov 2025, 60 (6) 1915-1936; DOI: 10.3368/jhr.0622-12369R2
Twitter logo Facebook logo Mendeley logo
  • Tweet Widget
  • Facebook Like
  • Google Plus One
Bookmark this article

Jump to section

  • Article
    • Abstract
    • I. Introduction
    • II. Background
    • III. Data
    • IV. First Stage: Water Pollution
    • V. Infant Health
    • VI. Conclusion
    • Acknowledgments
    • Footnotes
    • References
  • Figures & Data
  • Supplemental
  • Info & Metrics
  • References
  • PDF

Related Articles

  • Google Scholar

Cited By...

  • No citing articles found.
  • Google Scholar

More in this TOC Section

  • Migration, Segregation, and Interracial Marriage
  • Monopsony, Efficiency, and the Regularization of Undocumented Immigrants
  • Providers, Places, and Children’s Mental Health Care
Show more Articles

Similar Articles

Keywords

  • Q51
  • Q53
  • Q58
  • I18
  • H51
UW Press logo

© 2026 Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System

Powered by HighWire