Article Figures & Data
Figures
- Figure 1
Tertiary Institutions in Affected and Nonaffected Areas in 2017
Source: Swisstopo.
Notes: The map shows Switzerland’s 106 commuting zones split into affected (gray) and nonaffected units (white) and the location of tertiary institutions by institutional type.
- Figure 2
Share of Cross-Border Commuters and Travel Time
Source: FSO.
Notes: The figure shows estimates from a locally weighted regression of the share of cross-border commuters in 1997 (Panel A) and 2017 (Panel B) relative to 1995 employment on travel time to the closest Swiss border crossing. The unit of observation is the commuting zone. The dashed line plots the function exp(−0.05 × Travel time) rescaled by ten in Panel A and five in Panel B. The vertical line is drawn at 30 minutes travel time.
- Figure 3
Exposure to Cross-Border Commuters by Educational Level
Source: SESS.
Notes: The figure shows difference-in-differences estimates using biennial data at the commuting zone level for the period 1996–2016. The reference year is 2000. The vertical lines indicate the beginning of the transition period (2002) and of the post-reform period (2007). The dependent variable is the share of cross-border commuters in total employment by educational level. Observations are weighed by the number of total employees in 1996. Standard errors are clustered at the commuting zone level; 95 percent confidence intervals are shown.
- Figure 4
Native Enrollment Rate by Institutional Type
Source: SHIS-studex.
Notes: The figure shows difference-in-differences estimates using annual data at the commuting zone level for the period 1991–2017. The reference year is 2001. The vertical lines indicate the beginning of the transition period (2002) and of the post-reform period (2007). The dependent variable is the share of native first-year students in the birth cohort by institutional type. Observations are weighed by the cohort size in 1997. Standard errors are clustered at the commuting zone level; 95 percent confidence intervals are shown.
- Figure 5
Native Enrollment Rate by Type of Study Field at Universities of Applied Sciences
Source: SHIS-studex.
Notes: The figure shows difference-in-differences estimates using annual data at the commuting zone level for the period 1997–2017. The reference year is 2001. The vertical lines indicate the beginning of the transition period (2002) and of the post-reform period (2007). The dependent variable is the share of native first-year students in the birth cohort by study field. Observations are weighed by the cohort size in 1997. Standard errors are clustered at the commuting zone level; 95 percent confidence intervals are shown.
Tables
Native Workers Cross-Border Commuters Mean SD Mean SD Age 40.508 1.278 40.258 1.899 Share women 0.374 0.055 0.295 0.086 Share with lower-secondary education 0.111 0.045 0.263 0.196 Share with upper-secondary education 0.643 0.071 0.495 0.145 Share with academic tertiary education 0.129 0.066 0.148 0.081 Share with professional tertiary education 0.116 0.028 0.094 0.050 Share in no managerial position 0.614 0.053 0.714 0.074 Share in junior or executive managerial position 0.217 0.038 0.203 0.053 Share in medium or senior managerial position 0.169 0.029 0.083 0.037 Share in STEM occupation 0.428 0.109 0.614 0.128 Share in non-STEM occupation 0.572 0.109 0.386 0.128 Source: SESS.
Notes: The observation period is 1996–2016. Data are at the commuting zone level. Lower-secondary level of education is compulsory education as highest degree, upper-secondary is a degree from an upper-secondary education with or without a matura exam, academic tertiary is a degree from a university or university of applied sciences, and professional tertiary is a degree from other types of higher education institutions. Observations are weighed by the number of native workers or cross-border commuters, respectively.
Outcome: Share of Cross-Border Commuters All Up to Lower-Secondary Upper-Secondary Tertiary (1) (2) (3) (4) 30min * 2002–2006 0.013** −0.002 0.021** 0.005 (0.006) (0.007) (0.008) (0.007) 30min * 2008–2016 0.033*** 0.014 0.046*** 0.032*** (0.012) (0.009) (0.016) (0.011) Mean outcome 0.072 0.070 0.069 0.069 SD outcome 0.109 0.129 0.103 0.098 Commuting zones 106 106 106 106 Within 30 min 35 35 35 35 N 1,166 1,166 1,166 1,160 Source: SESS.
Notes: The table shows difference-in-differences estimates using biennial data at the commuting zone level for the period 1996–2016. The dependent variable is the share of cross-border commuters in total employment by educational level. Observations are weighed by the number of total employees in 1996. Standard errors in parentheses are clustered at the commuting zone level. *p < 0.1, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01.
Field of Study STEM Field Skill Supply of Commuters Relative to Residents (1) (2) Education 0 0.495 Languages 0 0.596 Law 0 0.653 Welfare 0 0.663 Journalism and information 0 0.670 Personal services 0 0.719 Humanities (except languages) 0 0.728 Social and behavioral sciences 0 0.764 Health 1 0.800 Veterinary 0 0.819 Business and administration 0 0.883 Arts 0 1.179 Mathematics and statistics 1 1.318 Biological and related sciences 1 1.384 Agriculture 1 1.547 Manufacturing and processing 1 1.549 Environment 1 1.613 Physical sciences 1 1.652 Engineering and engineering trades 1 1.948 Forestry 1 1.968 Information and communication technologies (ICT) 1 2.304 Architecture and construction 1 2.470 Sources: EHA, FSO.
Notes: Column 1 distinguishes between STEM and non-STEM two-digit ISCED study fields. Column 2 shows the ratio of the share of commuters trained in a study field relative to the share of residents trained in the same field according to Equation 4.
Outcome: Share of Cross-Border Commuters Upper-Secondary Tertiary STEM Non-STEM STEM Non-STEM (1) (2) (3) (4) 30min * 2002–2006 0.024*** 0.008 0.023 0.004 (0.009) (0.006) (0.014) (0.007) 30min * 2008–2016 0.033** 0.019* 0.044** 0.026** (0.015) (0.011) (0.020) (0.010) Mean outcome 0.081 0.039 0.096 0.050 SD outcome 0.125 0.063 0.129 0.069 Commuting zones 106 106 106 106 Within 30 min 35 35 35 35 N 848 848 824 837 Source: SESS.
Notes: The table shows difference-in-differences estimates using biennial data at the commuting zone level for the period 1996–2010. The dependent variable is the share of cross-border commuters in total employment by educational level and occupation. Observations are weighed by the number of total employees in 1996. Standard errors in parentheses are clustered at the commuting zone level. *p < 0.1, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01.
Affected Areas Nonaffected Areas N Mean SD N Mean SD Enrollment rate 735 0.354 0.094 1,491 0.311 0.083 ... at universities 735 0.206 0.082 1,491 0.170 0.060 ... at universities of applied sciences 735 0.148 0.053 1,491 0.141 0.049 ... in agriculture 735 0.003 0.002 1,491 0.004 0.003 ... in arts and humanities 735 0.039 0.017 1,491 0.031 0.014 ... in business and law 735 0.092 0.028 1,491 0.081 0.026 ... in engineering 735 0.050 0.015 1,491 0.048 0.014 ... in health and welfare 735 0.046 0.028 1,491 0.035 0.022 ... in ICT 735 0.011 0.006 1,491 0.011 0.006 ... in math and sciences 735 0.033 0.012 1,491 0.029 0.011 ... in services 735 0.004 0.005 1,491 0.003 0.004 ... in social sciences 735 0.038 0.02 1,491 0.031 0.015 Mean ln gross hourly wage 385 3.573 0.098 781 3.564 0.109 ... of lower-secondary educated 385 3.298 0.082 781 3.297 0.083 ... of upper-secondary educated 385 3.519 0.081 781 3.496 0.081 ... of tertiary educated 385 3.934 0.088 774 3.937 0.085 Share employed in management 385 0.144 0.031 781 0.141 0.029 ... with lower-secondary education 385 0.027 0.023 780 0.025 0.023 ... with upper-secondary education 385 0.107 0.026 781 0.102 0.025 ... with tertiary education 385 0.439 0.093 774 0.439 0.097 ln number employed 385 10.094 0.908 781 10.347 1.188 ... with lower-secondary education 385 7.961 0.859 781 7.971 0.976 ... with upper-secondary education 385 9.607 0.861 781 9.888 1.132 ... with tertiary education 385 8.333 1.198 774 8.724 1.567 Sources: SESS, SHIS-studex.
Notes: The table shows summary statistics for native outcome variables. The observation period for the enrollment outcomes is 1997–2017 and for the labor market outcomes 1996–2016. Data are at the commuting zone level. Lower-secondary level of education is compulsory education as highest degree, upper-secondary is a degree from an upper-secondary education with or without a matura exam, and tertiary is a degree from a university or university of applied sciences. Native enrollment rate is the share of native first-year students in the birth cohort. One-digit ISCED fields of studies are considered. Observations are weighed by the native cohort size in 1997 and the number of native employees in 1996 by education group, respectively.
Outcome: Share of Native First-Year Students in Birth Cohort All University University of Applied Sciences (1) (2) (3) 30min * 2002–2006 −0.000 −0.003 0.003 (0.007) (0.004) (0.004) 30min * 2008–2016 0.010 −0.001 0.011** (0.007) (0.006) (0.004) Mean outcome 0.326 0.183 0.143 SD outcome 0.089 0.071 0.050 Commuting zones 106 106 106 Within 30 min 35 35 35 N 2,226 2,226 2,226 Source: SHIS-studex.
Notes: The table shows difference-in-differences estimates using annual data at the commuting zone level for the period 1997–2017. The dependent variable is the share of native first-year students in the birth cohort by institutional type. Observations are weighed by the cohort size in 1997. Standard errors in parentheses are clustered at the commuting zone level. *p < 0.1, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01.
Outcome: Share of Native First-Year Students in Birth Cohort STEM Non-STEM Affected Nonaffected (1) (2) (3) (4) Panel A: All Institutions 30min * 2002–2006 0.000 −0.001 −0.001 −0.000 (0.004) (0.005) (0.003) (0.005) 30min * 2008–2016 0.002 0.005 0.001 0.007 (0.003) (0.005) (0.003) (0.005) Mean outcome 0.119 0.206 0.103 0.222 SD outcome 0.035 0.061 0.025 0.071 Commuting zones 106 106 106 106 Within 30 min 35 35 35 35 N 2,226 2,226 2,226 2,226 Panel B: Universities 30min * 2002–2006 −0.001 −0.003 −0.001 −0.002 (0.002) (0.003) (0.002) (0.003) 30min * 2008–2016 −0.000 −0.003 −0.002 −0.001 (0.002) (0.004) (0.002) (0.004) Mean outcome 0.066 0.116 0.051 0.131 SD outcome 0.026 0.049 0.019 0.057 Commuting zones 106 106 106 106 Within 30 min 35 35 35 35 N 2,226 2,226 2,226 2,226 Panel C: Universities of Applied Sciences 30min * 2002–2006 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 (0.003) (0.003) (0.002) (0.004) 30min * 2008–2016 0.003 0.008*** 0.003 0.008** (0.003) (0.003) (0.002) (0.003) Mean outcome 0.053 0.091 0.052 0.091 SD outcome 0.020 0.039 0.014 0.043 Commuting zones 106 106 106 106 Within 30 min 35 35 35 35 N 2,226 2,226 2,226 2,226 Source: SHIS-studex.
Notes: The table shows difference-in-differences estimates using annual data at the commuting zone level for the period 1997–2017. Affected fields are those with a relative skill supply measure above one as shown in Table 3. The dependent variable is the share of native first-year students in the birth cohort by study field and institutional type. Observations are weighed by the cohort size in 1997. Standard errors in parentheses are clustered at the commuting zone level. *p < 0.1, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01.
All Up to Lower-Secondary Upper-Secondary Tertiary (1) (2) (3) (4) Panel A: ln Gross Hourly Wage Rate of Natives 30min * 2002–2006 −0.003 −0.004 −0.005 0.019** (0.005) (0.009) (0.006) (0.009) 30min * 2008–2010 −0.005 −0.003 −0.009 0.029*** (0.006) (0.013) (0.007) (0.010) 30min * 2012–2016 −0.014*** −0.012 −0.016*** 0.019* (0.005) (0.017) (0.005) (0.011) Mean outcome −0.000 −0.008 0.001 0.001 SD outcome 0.060 0.074 0.061 0.074 Commuting zones 106 106 106 105 Within 30 min 35 35 35 35 N 1,166 1,166 1,166 1,144 Panel B: Share of Natives in a Managerial Position 30min * 2002–2006 0.005* −0.001 0.001 0.029 (0.003) (0.004) (0.004) (0.020) 30min * 2008–2010 0.003 0.007 −0.002 0.023 (0.004) (0.005) (0.005) (0.020) 30min * 2012–2016 0.002 −0.002 −0.001 0.022 (0.004) (0.004) (0.004) (0.026) Mean outcome −0.000 −0.001 −0.000 −0.002 Sd outcome 0.023 0.024 0.024 0.093 Commuting zones 106 106 106 105 Within 30 min 35 35 35 35 N 1,166 1,166 1,166 1,144 Panel C: ln Number of Natives Employed 30min * 2002–2006 0.008 0.012 −0.018 0.088* (0.033) (0.066) (0.040) (0.053) 30min * 2008–2010 0.013 0.041 −0.000 −0.015 (0.047) (0.088) (0.055) (0.078) 30min * 2012–2016 −0.051 0.033 −0.039 −0.107 (0.069) (0.061) (0.086) (0.111) Mean outcome 9.553 7.011 9.112 7.952 SD outcome 1.136 1.058 1.073 1.505 Commuting zones 106 106 106 105 Within 30 min 35 35 35 35 N 1,166 1,166 1,166 1,144 Source: SESS.
Notes: The table shows difference-in-differences estimates using biennial data at the commuting zone level for the period 1996–2016. The sample consists of employees aged 18–40. The dependent variable in Panel A is the mean natural log of gross hourly wage of natives (residualized) in an education category, in Panel B the share of natives holding at least a middle management position (residualized) in an education category, and in Panel C the natural log of number of natives employed in education category. Observations are weighed by the number of native employees in a specific education category in 1996. Standard errors in parentheses are clustered at the commuting zone level. *p < 0.1, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01.
Upper-Secondary Tertiary STEM Non-STEM STEM Non-STEM (1) (2) (3) (4) Panel A: ln Gross Hourly Wage Rate of Natives 30min * 2002–2006 0.003 −0.008 0.019 0.022 (0.005) (0.006) (0.012) (0.021) 30min * 2008–2010 0.004 −0.009 0.012 0.041 (0.006) (0.007) (0.016) (0.026) Mean outcome 0.001 0.001 0.003 −0.001 SD outcome 0.052 0.079 0.070 0.089 Commuting zones 106 106 98 100 Within 30 min 35 35 33 35 N 848 848 766 791 Panel B: Share of Natives in a Managerial Position 30min * 2002–2006 0.004 −0.006 −0.020 0.053*** (0.006) (0.005) (0.031) (0.016) 30min * 2008–2010 0.002 −0.010 −0.032 0.032 (0.007) (0.006) (0.034) (0.022) Mean outcome −0.000 0.000 −0.007 −0.001 SD outcome 0.028 0.032 0.130 0.113 Commuting zones 106 106 98 101 Within 30 min 35 35 33 35 N 848 848 766 798 Panel C: ln Number of Natives Employed 30min * 2002–2006 −0.049 0.012 0.047 0.097 (0.048) (0.048) (0.078) (0.083) 30min * 2008–2010 −0.085 0.057 −0.138 0.077 (0.055) (0.068) (0.090) (0.118) Mean outcome 8.059 8.670 6.726 7.407 SD outcome 0.908 1.224 1.393 1.598 Commuting zones 106 106 98 101 Within 30 min 35 35 33 35 N 848 848 766 798 Source: SESS.
Notes: The table shows difference-in-differences estimates using biennial data at the commuting zone level for the period 1996–2010. The sample consists of employees aged 18–40. The dependent variable in Panel A is the mean natural log of gross hourly wage of natives (residualized) in an education–occupation category, in Panel B the share of natives holding at least a middle management position (residualized) in an education–occupation category, and in Panel C the natural log of number of natives employed in education–occupation category. Observations are weighed by the number of upper-secondary educated native employees in 1996 in Columns 1–2 and tertiary educated native employees in 1996 in Columns 3–4. Standard errors in parentheses are clustered at the commuting zone level. *p < 0.1, **p < 0.05, ***p < .01.
- Table 10
Native Enrollment Rate at Universities of Applied Sciences by Educational Background
Outcome: Share of Native First-Year Students in Birth Cohort General Vocational Vocational STEM Vocational Non-STEM Other (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 30min * 2002–2006 −0.002 0.003 −0.001 0.004* 0.002 (0.002) (0.003) (0.002) (0.002) (0.001) 30min * 2008–2016 −0.003 0.013*** 0.003 0.009*** 0.001 (0.002) (0.004) (0.002) (0.003) (0.001) Mean outcome 0.033 0.106 0.042 0.059 0.004 SD outcome 0.018 0.040 0.017 0.031 0.005 Commuting zones 106 106 106 106 106 Within 30 min 35 35 35 35 35 N 2,226 2,226 2,226 2,226 2,226 Source: SHIS-studex.
Notes: The table shows difference-in-differences estimates using annual data at the commuting zone level for the period 1997–2017. The dependent variable is the share of native first-year students in the birth cohort. Column 1 shows first-year students with a general education (general matura) and Column 2 first-year students with a vocational background (vocational or specialized education). In Columns 3 and 4, we split the individuals with a vocational background into STEM and non-STEM. Column 5 shows results for first-year students who cannot be classified as generally or vocationally educated. Observations are weighed by the cohort size in 1997. Standard errors in parentheses are clustered at the commuting zone level. *p < 0.1, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01.
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