Research ArticleArticles
Safeguarding Consumers Through Minimum Quality Standards: Milk Inspections and Urban Mortality in the United States, 1880-1910
D. Mark Anderson, Kerwin Kofi Charles, Michael McKelligott and Daniel I. Rees
Published online before print March 07, 2025, 0823-13084R2; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.0823-13084R2
D. Mark Anderson
*Montana State University, research fellow at IZA, and research associate at the NBER E-mail:
Roles: professor of economics
Kerwin Kofi Charles
†NBER. E-mail:
Roles: Dean of the Yale School of Management, and a research associate
Michael McKelligott
‡Harris School of Public Policy at the University of Chicago. E-mail:
Roles: Ph.D. student
Daniel I. Rees
§Universidad Carlos III de Madrid. E-mail:
Roles: professor of economics

References
- “149 Milk Dealers Arrested this Year.” 1905. The San Francisco Examiner, October 20, p. 2.
- “A Chemical Examination Shows Borax Acid in Milk.” 1889. Wichita Star, July 27, p. 1.
- “A ‘Skim’ Milk Crusade.” 1878. New York Times, Aug. 28, p. 8.
- Alvord, Henry Elijah and
- Raymond Allen Pearson
- “After the Milkmen.” 1898. San Francisco Examiner, May 29, p. 20.
- Anderson, D. Mark,
- Kerwin Kofi Charles,
- Michael McKelligott, and
- Daniel I. Rees
- “Annual Report of the Milk Inspector.” 1885. The Boston Globe, June 3, p. 5.
- Arora, Paul,
- Kristian Thorlund,
- Darren R. Brenner, and
- Jason R. Andrews
- Ashraf, Nava,
- Diego Aycinemna,
- Claudia Martinez, and
- Dean Yang
- Babcock, James F.
- Badell, Edgar,
- Abdulilah Alharazi,
- Alexis Criscuolo,
- Khaled Abdullah Ali Almoayed,
- Noémie Lefrancq,
- Valerie Bouchez,
- Julien Guglielmini,
- Melanie Hennart,
- Annick Carmi-Leroy,
- Nora Zidane,
- Marine Pascal-Perrigault,
- Manon Lebreton,
- Helena Martini,
- Henrik Salje,
- Julie Toubiana,
- Fekri Dureab,
- Ghulam Dhabaan,
- Sylvain Brisse, and NCPHL diphtheria outbreak working group
- Bertrand, Marianne,
- Esther Duflo, and
- Sendhil Mullainathan
- Bockstael, Nancy E.
- “Boston’s Milk Inspector.” New England Farmer, Feb. 14, p. 2.
- Bowblis, John R.
- “Brief Comment.” 1892. The Tribune (Scranton, PA), Nov. 18, p. 4.
- Caetano, Carolina and
- Brantly Callaway
- Cameron, A. Colin,
- Jonah Gelbach, and
- Douglas Miller
- Cameron, A. Colin and
- Douglas Miller
- “Can be Read at a Glance.” 1889. The Philadelphia Inquirer, Jan. 16, p. 3.
- Chicago (Ill.). 1894-1899. Annual Report of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago. Chicago: Cameron, Amberg & Co.
- Chipty, Tasneem, and
- Ann Dryden Witte
- City of Boston (MA). 1860. Municipal Register: Containing the City Charter, the Rules and Orders of the City Council, and a List of Officers of the City of Boston, for the Year 1860. City Document No. 2.
- City of Boston (MA). 1889. City of Boston, Thirtieth Annual Report of the Inspector of Milk and Vinegar. Boston, MA: Office of the Inspector of Milk and Vinegar.
- Cleveland (Ohio). 1889. “Report of the Milk Inspector.” In Reports of the Departments of Government of the City of Cleveland for the Year Ending Dec. 31, 1888. Cleveland, OH: The Cleveland Printing and Publishing Co.
- Cooper, Howard Mickle.
- Cope Jr, Francis R.
- Cutler, David and
- Grant Miller
- “Dangerous Milk Adulteration.” 1879. The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, July 7, p. 2.
- Darby, Michael R. and
- Edi Karni
- “Death Lurking in Milk” 1888. The Philadelphia Inquirer, Dec. 5, p. 2.
- Department of Commerce and Labor. 1906. Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office.
- District of Columbia. 1899. Report of the Health Officer, Health Department. Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office.
- Doremus, R. Ogden.
- Drescher, August.
- Dubelko, Jim.
- Ewbank, Douglas and
- Samuel Preston
- “Formaldehyde Used in Milk.” 1899. Chicago Tribune, April 12, p. 2.
- Frontier Post Report. 2019. “PFA Discards 4,915 Liters Adulterated Milk in Punjab.” Frontier Post. Available at: https://thefrontierpost.com/pfa-discards-4915-liters-adulterated-milk-in-punjab/.
- “Good and Bad Milk.” 1886. The Boston Globe, Feb. 16, p. 3.
- Hammonds, Evelynn Maxine.
- Hart, Leslie.
- Higgs, Robert.
- “How Milk is Adulterated”. 1887. The Philadelphia Inquirer, Nov. 12, p. 10.
- “Human Foods.” 1888. St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Jan. 16, p. 3.
- “Inspection of Milk: Interesting Report of Inspector Babcock.” 1887. The Boston Globe, Feb 8, p. 6.
- Janega, James.
- “Jersey Has a New Reservoir.” 1904. The Sun, Jan. 24, p. 15.
- Katona, Peter and
- Judit Katona-Apte
- Klass, Perri.
- Kober, George M.
- Leland, Hayne E.
- Levenstein, Harvey.
- “Liquid Death Once Again to be Sold to Mothers and Babes.” 1897. San Francisco Call, Sept. 30, p. 9.
- Litovitz, Toby L.
- Wendy Klein-Schwartz,
- Gary M. Oderda,
- Barbara F. Schmitz
- “Long Live the Pump.” 1890. The Philadelphia Inquirer, June 25, p. 8.
- “Looking After Milk Dealers.” 1877. New-York Tribune, February 27, p. 8.
- Magruder, G.L.
- Martin, Edward W.
- Matsudaira, Jordan.
- Meckel, Richard.
- “Milk Adulteration in St. Paul and Minneapolis.” 1887. Star Tribune, April 7, p. 4.
- “Milk Inspection: The System in Boston and How it Works.” 1885. The Baltimore Sun, Dec. 10, p. 5.
- “Milk that Was Watered” 1879. The New York Times, September 3, p. 8
- Morris, J. Cheston.
- Mulligan, T.O.
- Nelson, Phillip.
- Neville, W.H.H.
- Newton, Jennifer.
- Newton, William K.
- “Notes and Gleanings” 1885. The Boston Globe, Aug. 18, p. 5.
- Olmstead, Alan and
- Paul Rhode
- Parker, Horatio N.
- Polonsky, Jonathan A.,
- Melissa Ivey,
- Md. Khadimul Anam Mazhar,
- Ziaur Rahman,
- Olivier le Polain de Waroux,
- Basel Karo,
- Katri Jalava,
- Sirenda Vong,
- Amrish Baidjoe,
- Janet Diaz,
- Flavio Finger,
- Zakir H. Habib,
- Charls Erik Halder,
- Christopher Haskew,
- Laurent Kaiser,
- Ali S. Khan,
- Lucky Sangal,
- Tahmina Shirin,
- Quazi Ahmed Zaki,
- Md. Abdus Salam, and
- Kate White
- Porter, A.E.
- “Praises Boston’s Milk Inspection.” 1893. Chicago Tribune, Jan. 11, p. 14.
- “‘Prepared,’ not ‘Adulterated Milk.’” 1883. Everett Press, Dec. 19, p. 5.
- Preston, Samuel and
- Michael Haines
- Price, W.
- “Providing for Milk Inspection.” 1889. The Philadelphia Times, May 14, p. 1.
- Rees, Albert and
- Donald P. Jacobs
- “Report of the Inspector of Milk.” 1878. Boston Post, April 2, p. 3.
- Rosenau, Milton J.
- “Sale of Impure Milk” 1890. The Times, June 13, p. 3.
- San Francisco (CA). 1898. San Francisco Municipal Reports for the Fiscal Year 1897-1898. San Francisco, CA: The Hinton Printing Company.
- Society Proceedings. 1912. “Typhoid in Infancy.” Journal of the American Medical Association, 59(1): 57–63.
- Solon, Gary,
- Steven J. Haider, and
- Jeffrey M. Wooldridge
- Steere-Williams, Jacob.
- “Strike for Reform.” 1892. Chicago Tribune, Nov. 22, p. 1.
- “The Adulteration of Milk.” 1880. The New England Farmer, Feb. 21, p. 2.
- “The Assumption of Milk Inspector Davenport Condemned” 1884. The Boston Globe, December 19, p. 2.
- “The Care of Infants Historical Data.” 1912. Journal of the American Medical Association, 59(7): 542–543.
- “The Inspection of Milk” 1879. The Boston Globe, Jan. 7, p. 2.
- “The Milk Bill Lost.” 1890. The Philadelphia Times, June 24, p. 3.
- Thomas, Duncan,
- Elizabeth Frankenberg,
- Jed Friedman,
- Jean-Pierre Habicht,
- Mohammed Hakimi,
- Nicholas Ingwersen,
- Jaswadi,
- Nathan Jones,
- Christopher McKelvey,
- Gretel Pelto,
- Bondan Sikoki,
- Teresa Seeman,
- James Smith,
- Cecep Sumantri,
- Wayan Suriastini, and
- Siswanto Wilopo
- “To Check Milk Frauds.” 1900. Chicago Tribune, May 16, p. 9.
- Trask, John W.
- Tribune News Service. 2021. “20% Milk Samples Found Adulterated in Karnal.” The Tribune, Nov. 21. Available at: https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/haryana/20-milk-samples-found-adulterated-in-karnal-343282.
- Troesken, Werner.
- United States Bureau of the Census. 1906. Mortality Statistics, 1900 to 1904. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office.
- Wagner, K. S.,
- J.M. White,
- N.S. Crowcroft,
- S. D.E. Martin,
- G. Mann, and
- A. Efstratiou
- Wanjala, George,
- Philip Kutima, and
- Julius Maina Marthara
- “Watching Milkmen.” 1885. The Boston Globe, May 20, p. 4.
- “Where Milk’s Always Good: Regulation and Inspection of Supply in Three Large Cities.” 1906. The Kansas City Star, January 23, p. 3.
- Whipple, George.
- Whitaker, George M.
- Wolf, Jacqueline H.
- “Work of the City Councils.” 1890. The Philadelphia Times, Sep 19, p. 6.
- “Work Performed by Milk Inspector Babcock.” 1885. The Boston Globe, July 7, p. 5.
- World Health Organization. 2018. “Typhoid Vaccines: WHO Position Paper – March 2018.” Weekly Epidemiological Record, 93 (13): 153–172.
- World Health Organization. 2019. Safer Water, Better Health. 2019 Update. Geneva: World Health Organization.
In this issue
Journal of Human Resources
Vol. 60, Issue 1
1 Jan 2025
Safeguarding Consumers Through Minimum Quality Standards: Milk Inspections and Urban Mortality in the United States, 1880-1910
D. Mark Anderson, Kerwin Kofi Charles, Michael McKelligott, Daniel I. Rees
Journal of Human Resources Mar 2025, 0823-13084R2; DOI: 10.3368/jhr.0823-13084R2
Jump to section
Related Articles
Cited By...
- No citing articles found.