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- Published online August 8, 2025.
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© 2025 by the Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System This open access article is distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0) and is freely available online at: http://le.uwpress.org
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- 2 Maria Fitzpatrick is Professor of Economics and Public Policy in the Jeb E. Brooks School of Public Policy at Cornell University and Research Associate at National Bureau of Economic Research. Email: maria.d.fitzpatrick{at}cornell.edu.
- 3 Katharine Sadowski is an Assistant Professor in the Graduate School of Education at Stanford University and an Affiliate at the Center for Early Childhood.
- 4 Christopher Wildeman is a Professor of Sociology and Sanford School of Public Policy at Duke University and an Affiliate of the Center for Child and Family Policy.






