Expectations about the Productivity of Effort and Academic Outcomes

References

1. 1. Alan, Sule, &
   2. Ertac, Seda.

   2018. Fostering Patience in the Classroom: Results from Randomized Educational Intervention. Journal of Political Economy, 126(5), 1865–1911.

   OpenUrl
2. 1. Alan, Sule,
   2. Boneva, Teodora, &
   3. Ertac, Seda.

   2019. Ever Failed, Try Again, Succeed Better: Results from a Randomized Educational Intervention on Grit. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 134(3), 1121–1162.

   OpenUrl
3. 1. Algan, Yann,
   2. Beasley, Elizabeth,
   3. Vitaro, Frank,
   4. Tremblay, Richard E,

   et al. 2014. The Impact of Non-Cognitive Skills Training on Academic and Non-academic Trajectories: From Childhood to Early Adulthood. Sciences Po Working Papers.
4. 1. Almlund, Mathilde,
   2. Duckworth, Angela Lee,
   3. Heckman, James, &
   4. Kautz, Tim.

   2011. Personality Psychology and Economics. Pages 1–181 of: Handbook of the Economics of Education, vol. 4. Elsevier.
5. 1. Anderson, Michael L.

   2008. Multiple Inference and Gender Differences in the Effects of Early Intervention: A Reevaluation of the Abecedarian, Perry Preschool, and Early Training Projects. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 103(484), 1481–1495.

   OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
6. 1. Arcidiacono, Peter,
   2. Hotz, V Joseph,
   3. Maurel, Arnaud, &
   4. Romano, Teresa.

   2020. Ex Ante Returns and Occupational Choice. Journal of Political Economy, 128(12), 4475–4522.

   OpenUrl
7. 1. Aronson, Joshua,
   2. Fried, Carrie B, &
   3. Good, Catherine.

   2002. Reducing the Effects of Stereotype Threat on African American College Students by Shaping Theories of Intelligence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38(2), 113–125.

   OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
8. 1. Attanasio, Orazio,
   2. Boneva, Teodora, &
   3. Rauh, Christopher.

   2022. Parental beliefs about returns to different types of investments in school children. Journal of Human Resources, 57(6), 1789–1825.

   OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
9. 1. Avery, Mallory,
   2. Giuntella, Osea, &
   3. Jiao, Peiran.

   2022. Why Don’t We Sleep Enough? A Field Experiment among College Students. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 09, 1–45.

   OpenUrl
10. 1. Bachmann, Ruediger,
    2. Topa, Giorgio, &
    3. van der Klaauw, Wilbert.

    2022. Handbook of Economic Expectations. Elsevier.
11. 1. Bailey, Drew H,
    2. Duncan, Greg J,
    3. Cunha, Flávio,
    4. Foorman, Barbara R, & Yeager, David S.

    2020. Persistence and fade-out of educational-intervention effects: Mechanisms and potential solutions. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 21(2), 55–97.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
12. 1. Bertrand, Marianne, &
    2. Pan, Jessica.

    2013. The Trouble with Boys: Social Influences and the Gender Gap in Disruptive Behavior. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 5(1), 32–64.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
13. 1. Bettinger, Eric,
    2. Ludvigsen, Sten,
    3. Rege, Mari,
    4. Solli, Ingeborg F, &
    5. Yeager, David.

    2018. Increasing Perseverance in Math: Evidence from a Field Experiment in Norway. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 146, 1–15.

    OpenUrl
14. 1. Bhalotra, Sonia,
    2. Delavande, Adeline,
    3. Font-Gilabert, Paulino, &
    4. Maselko, Joanna.

    2024. Maternal Investments in Children: The Role of Expected Effort and Returns. The Economic Journal, 135(667), 712–747.

    OpenUrl
15. 1. Blass, Asher A,
    2. Lach, Saul, &
    3. Manski, Charles F.

    2010. Using Elicited Choice Probabilities to Estimate Random Utility Models: Preferences for Electricity Reliability. International Economic Review, 51(2), 421–440.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
16. 1. Boneva, Teodora, &
    2. Rauh, Christopher.

    2018. Parental beliefs about returns to educational investments—the later the better? Journal of the European Economic Association, 16(6), 1669–1711.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
17. 1. Broda, Michael,
    2. Yun, John,
    3. Schneider, Barbara,
    4. Yeager, David S,
    5. Walton, Gregory M, &
    6. Diemer, Matthew.

    2018. Reducing Inequality in Academic Success for Incoming College Students: A Randomized Trial of Growth Mindset and Belonging Interventions. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 11(3), 317–338.

    OpenUrlPubMed
18. 1. Bruhn, Miriam, &
    2. McKenzie, David.

    2009. In Pursuit of Balance: Randomization in Practice in Development Field Experiments. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 1(4), 200–232.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
19. 1. Bruner, Jerome S.

    2009. Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. Harvard University Press.
20. 1. Burnette, Jeni L,
    2. Russell, Michelle V,
    3. Hoyt, Crystal L,
    4. Orvidas, Kasey, &
    5. Widman, Laura.

    2018. An Online Growth Mindset Intervention in a Sample of Rural Adolescent Girls. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(3), 428–445.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
21. 1. Cappelen, Alexander W.,
    2. Charness, Gary,
    3. Ekström, Mathias,
    4. Gneezy, Uri, &
    5. Tungodden, Bertil.

    2025. Exercise Improves Academic Performance. Journal of Political Economy. Published online September 9, 2025.
22. 1. Carter, Susan Payne,
    2. Greenberg, Kyle, &
    3. Walker, Michael S.

    2017. The impact of computer usage on academic performance: Evidence from a randomized trial at the United States Military Academy. Economics of Education Review, 56, 118–132.

    OpenUrl
23. 1. Cepeda, N J,
    2. Pasher, H,
    3. Vul, E, &
    4. Wixted, J Tand
    5. Rohrer, D.

    2008. Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychology Bullietin, 132, 354–380.

    OpenUrl
24. 1. Chetty, Raj,
    2. Friedman, John N., &
    3. Rockoff, Jonah E.

    2014. Measuring the Impacts of Teachers II: Teacher Value-Added and Student Outcomes in Adulthood. American Economic Review, 104(9), 2633–79.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
25. 1. Clark, Damon,
    2. Gill, David,
    3. Prowse, Victoria, &
    4. Rush, Mark.

    2020. Using Goals to Motivate College Students: Theory and Evidence From Field Experiments. Review of Economics and Statistics, 102(4), 648–663.

    OpenUrl
26. 1. Cunha, Flávio,
    2. Elo, Irma, &
    3. Culhane, Jennifer.

    2022. Maternal subjective expectations about the technology of skill formation predict investments in children one year later. Journal of Econometrics, 231(1), 3–32.

    OpenUrlPubMed
27. 1. Dar-Nimrod, Ilan, &
    2. Heine, Steven J.

    2006. Exposure to Scientific Theories Affects Women’s Math Performance. Science, 314(5798), 435–435.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
28. 1. Delavande, Adeline, &
    2. Zafar, Basit.

    2019. University Choice: The Role of Expected Earnings, Nonpecuniary Outcomes, and Financial Constraints. Journal of Political Economy, 127(5), 2343–2393.

    OpenUrl
29. 1. Delavande, Adeline,
    2. Del Bono, Emilia, &
    3. Holford, Angus.

    2022a. Academic and non-academic investments at university: The role of expectations, preferences and constraints. Journal of Econometrics, 231(1), 74–97.

    OpenUrl
30. 1. Delavande, Adeline,
    2. Del Bono, Emilia, &
    3. Holford, Angus.

    2022b. BOOST2018: The Ground-Breaking Study of Student Life, 2015-2020: Secure Access. [data collection]. UK Data Service. SN: 8877. DOI: 10.5255/UKDA-SN-8877-2.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
31. 1. Deming, David J.

    2022. Four facts about human capital. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 36(3), 75–102.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
32. 1. Duckworth, A,
    2. Peterson, L,
    3. Matthews, M, &
    4. Kelly, D.

    2007. Grit: Perseverance and Passion for Long-Term Goal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 1087–1101.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
33. 1. Dunlosky, John,
    2. Rawson, Katherine A,
    3. Marsh, Elizabeth J,
    4. Nathan, Mitchell J, &
    5. Willingham, Daniel T.

    2013. Improving Students’ Learning With Effective Learning Techniques: Promising Directions From Cognitive and Educational Psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4–58.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
34. 1. Dweck, Carol S.

    2008. Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. Random House Digital, Inc.
35. 1. Dweck, Carol S.

    2013. Self-theories: Their Role in Motivation, Personality, and Development. Psychology Press.
36. 1. Farrell, Warren, &
    2. Gray, John.

    2018. The boy crisis: Why our boys are struggling and what we can do about it. BenBella Books.
37. 1. Feng, Andy, &
    2. Graetz, Georg.

    2017. A question of degree: the effects of degree class on labor market outcomes. Economics of Education Review, 61, 140–161.

    OpenUrl
38. 1. Fryer Jr, Roland G.

    2011. Financial Incentives and Student Achievement: Evidence from Randomized Trials. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 126(4), 1755–1798.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
39. 1. Giustinelli, Pamela.

    2016. Group decision making with uncertain outcomes: Unpacking child–parent choice of the high school track. International Economic Review, 57(2), 573–602.

    OpenUrl
40. 1. Goldin, Claudia,
    2. Katz, Lawrence F, &
    3. Kuziemko, Ilyana.

    2006. The Homecoming of American College Women: The Reversal of the College Gender Gap. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20(4), 133–156.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
41. 1. Good, Catherine,
    2. Aronson, Joshua, &
    3. Inzlicht, Michael.

    2003. Improving adolescents’ standardized test performance: An intervention to reduce the effects of stereotype threat. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 24(6), 645–662.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
42. 1. Graeber, Thomas,
    2. Roth, Christopher, &
    3. Zimmermann, Florian.

    2024. Stories, Statistics, and Memory. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 139(4), 2181–2225.

    OpenUrl
43. 1. Hanushek, Eric.

    2011. Valuing Teachers: How Much is a Good Teacher Worth? Education Next, 11, 40–45.

    OpenUrl
44. 1. Hartwig, M K, &
    2. Dunlosky, J.

    2012. Study strategies of college students: Are self-testing and scheduling related to achievement? Psychonomic Bulleting & Review, 19, 126–134.

    OpenUrl
45. 1. Heckman, James J,
    2. Jagelka, Tomáš, &
    3. Kautz, Tim.

    2021. Some contributions of economics to the study of personality. Pages 853–892 of: Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research. The Guilford Press.
46. 1. Huillery, Elise,
    2. Bouguen, Adrien,
    3. Charpentier, Axelle,
    4. Algan, Yann, &
    5. Chevallier, Coralie.

    2025. The role of mindset in education: a large-scale field experiment in disadvantaged schools. The Economic Journal, 135(671), 2276–2314.

    OpenUrl
47. 1. Katz, Lawrence F.,
    2. Roth, Jonathan,
    3. Hendra, Richard, &
    4. Schaberg, Kelsey.

    2022. Why Do Sectoral Employment Programs Work? Lessons from WorkAdvance. Journal of Labor Economics, 40(S1), S249–S291.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
48. 1. Kautz, Tim,
    2. Heckman, James J.,
    3. Diris, Ron,
    4. ter Weel, Bas, &
    5. Borghans, Lex.

    2014 (Nov.). Fostering and Measuring Skills: Improving Cognitive and Non-cognitive Skills to Promote Lifetime Success. OECD Education Working Papers 110. OECD Publishing.
49. 1. Kim, Soobin,
    2. Yun, John,
    3. Schneider, Barbara,
    4. Broda, Michael,
    5. Klager, Christopher, &
    6. Chen, I-Chien.

    2022. The effects of growth mindset on college persistence and completion. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 195, 219–235.

    OpenUrl
50. 1. Kornell, Nate, &
    2. Bjork, Robert A.

    2007. The promise and perils of self-regulated study. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14(2), 219–224.

    OpenUrlPubMed
51. 1. Kraft, Matthew A.

    2020. Interpreting Effect Sizes of Education Interventions. Educational Researcher, 49(4), 241–253.

    OpenUrl
52. 1. Lundberg, Shelly.

    2020. Educational Gender Gaps. Southern Economic Journal, 87(2), 416–439.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
53. 1. Lynn, Peter, &
    2. Borkowska, Magda.

    2018. Some Indicators of Sample Representativeness and Attrition Bias for BHPS and Understanding Society. Colchester, UK: Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex.
54. 1. Macnamara, Brooke, &
    2. Burgoyne, Alexander.

    2023. Do growth mindset interventions impact students’ academic achievement? A systematic review and meta-analysis with recommendations for best practices. Psychological Bulletin.
55. 1. McCord, Joan.

    1978. A thirty-year follow-up of treatment effects. American Psychologist, 33(3), 284.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
56. 1. McCord, Joan.

    2003. Cures that harm: Unanticipated outcomes of crime prevention programs. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 587(1), 16–30.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
57. 1. McKenzie, David.

    2012. Beyond baseline and follow-up: The case for more T in experiments. Journal of Development Economics, 99(2), 210–221.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
58. 1. Moffitt, Terrie E,
    2. Arseneault, Louise,
    3. Belsky, Daniel,
    4. Dickson, Nigel,
    5. Hancox, Robert J,
    6. Harrington, HonaLee,
    7. Houts, Renate,
    8. Poulton, Richie,
    9. Roberts, Brent W,
    10. Ross, Stephen,

    et al. 2011. A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 2693–2698.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
59. 1. Mueller, C, &
    2. Dweck, C.

    1997. Implicit theories of intelligence: Malleability beliefs, definitions, and judgments of intelligence. Data, New York: Columbia University.
60. OECD. 2015. The ABC of Gender Equality in Education: Aptitude, Behaviour, Confidence.
61. 1. Oreopoulos, Philip, &
    2. Petronijevic, Uros.

    2019. The Remarkable Unresponsiveness of College Students to Nudging and What We Can Learn from It. Tech. rept. National Bureau of Economic Research.
62. 1. Oreopoulos, Philip, &
    2. Petronijevic, Uros.

    2023. The Promises and Pitfalls of Using (Mostly) Low-Touch Coaching Interventions to Improve College Student Outcomes. The Economic Journal, 133(656), 3034–3070.

    OpenUrl
63. 1. Paunesku, David,
    2. Walton, Gregory M,
    3. Romero, Carissa,
    4. Smith, Eric N,
    5. Yeager, David S, &
    6. Dweck, Carol S.

    2015. Mind-set Interventions are a Scalable Treatment for Academic Underachievement. Psychological Science, 26(6), 784–793.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
64. 1. Reeves, Richard.

    2022. Of boys and men: Why the modern male is struggling, why it matters, and what to do about it. Brookings Institution Press.
65. 1. Schank, RC, &
    2. Berman, T.

    2002. The pervasive role of stories in knowledge and action In Green MC, Strange JJ, & Brock TC (Eds.), Narrative impact: Social and cognitive foundations (pp. 287–313).
66. 1. Sisk, Victoria F,
    2. Burgoyne, Alexander P,
    3. Sun, Jingze,
    4. Butler, Jennifer L, & Macnamara, Brooke N.

    2018. To What Extent and Under Which Circumstances are Growth Mind-sets Important to Academic Achievement? Two Meta-analyses. Psychological Science, 29(4), 549–571.

    OpenUrlPubMed
67. 1. Sorrenti, Giuseppe,
    2. Zölitz, Ulf,
    3. Ribeaud, Denis, &
    4. Eisner, Manuel.

    2025. The Causal Impact of Socio-Emotional Skills Training on Educational Success. The Review of Economic Studies, 92(1), 506–533.

    OpenUrl
68. 1. Stinebrickner, Ralph, &
    2. Stinebrickner, Todd R.

    2004. Time-use and college outcomes. Journal of Econometrics, 121(1-2), 243–269.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
69. 1. Stinebrickner, Ralph, &
    2. Stinebrickner, Todd R.

    2008. The causal effect of studying on academic performance. The BE Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, 8(1).
70. 1. Stinebrickner, Todd, &
    2. Stinebrickner, Ralph.

    2012. Learning about academic ability and the college dropout decision. Journal of Labor Economics, 30(4), 707–748.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
71. 1. Tincani, M,
    2. Kosse, Fabian, &
    3. Miglino, Enrico.

    2021. Subjective beliefs and inclusion policies: Evidence from college admissions. Mimeo.
72. 1. Walker, Ian, &
    2. Zhu, Yu.

    2011. Differences by Degree: Evidence of the Net Financial Rates of Return to Undergraduate Study for England and Wales. Economics of Education Review, 30(6), 1177–1186.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
73. 1. Wiswall, Matthew, &
    2. Zafar, Basit.

    2021. Human Capital Investments and Expectations about Career and Family. Journal of Political Economy, 129(5), 1361–1424.

    OpenUrl
74. 1. Yeager, David S, &
    2. Dweck, Carol S.

    2020. What can be learned from growth mindset controversies? American psychologist, 75(9), 1269.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
75. 1. Yeager, David S.,
    2. Walton, Gregory M.,
    3. Brady, Shannon T.,
    4. Akcinar, Ezgi N.,
    5. Paunesku, David,
    6. Keane, Laura,
    7. Kamentz, Donald,
    8. Ritter, Gretchen,
    9. Duckworth, Angela Lee,
    10. Urstein, Robert,
    11. Gomez, Eric M.,
    12. Markus, Hazel Rose,
    13. Cohen, Geoffrey L., &
    14. Dweck, Carol S.

    2016a. Teaching a lay theory before college narrows achievement gaps at scale. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(24), E3341–E3348.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
76. 1. Yeager, David S,
    2. Romero, Carissa,
    3. Paunesku, Dave,
    4. Hulleman, Christopher S,
    5. Schneider, Barbara,
    6. Hinojosa, Cintia,
    7. Lee, Hae Yeon,
    8. O’Brien, Joseph,
    9. Flint, Kate,
    10. Roberts, Alice,

    et al. 2016b. Using Design Thinking to Improve Psychological Interventions: The Case of the Growth Mindset During the Transition to High School. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(3), 374.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
77. 1. Yeager, David S,
    2. Hanselman, Paul,
    3. Walton, Gregory M,
    4. Murray, Jared S,
    5. Crosnoe, Robert,
    6. Muller, Chandra,
    7. Tipton, Elizabeth,
    8. Schneider, Barbara,
    9. Hulleman, Chris S,
    10. Hinojosa, Cintia P,

    et al. 2019. A National Experiment Reveals Where a Growth Mindset Improves Achievement. Nature, 573(7774), 364–369.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed