PT  - JOURNAL ARTICLE
AU  - Anderson, D. Mark
AU  - Charles, Kerwin Kofi
AU  - McKelligott, Michael
AU  - Rees, Daniel I.
TI  - Safeguarding Consumers Through Minimum Quality Standards: Milk Inspections and Urban Mortality in the United States, 1880-1910
AID  - 10.3368/jhr.0823-13084R2
DP  - 2025 Mar 07
TA  - Journal of Human Resources
PG  - 0823-13084R2
4099  - http://jhr.uwpress.org/content/early/2025/02/28/jhr.0823-13084R2.short
4100  - http://jhr.uwpress.org/content/early/2025/02/28/jhr.0823-13084R2.full
AB  - The late 19th century urban milk supply in the United States was regularly skimmed and diluted with (potentially contaminated) water; dyes, caramel, and salt were added to conceal adulteration; boric acid was added to forestall souring. In an effort to protect consumers, most major American cities adopted minimum quality standards (MQSs) for milk and hired inspectors to enforce them. Using newly transcribed data on 35 cities for the period 1880-1910, we find that the hiring of milk inspectors is, after five years, associated with an 11-14 percent reduction in deaths from diarrheal diseases and typhoid; after 10 years, the hiring of milk inspections is associated with a 18-32 percent reduction in deaths from these diseases. Our estimates provide evidence that, when applied directly to a good the quality of which is difficult to ascertain, well-defined MQSs can improve the health of consumers.