Source: Own calculations based on KiBS Waves 2 and 3 (interviews 2012–2014) for children born between March 2011 and December 2012, East Germany without Thuringia only.

Notes: DiD analysis. Exclusively parental care is defined as the absence of informal care and care by a subsidized provider. Controls are maternal age at birth dummies (<25, 25–30, 30–35, 35–40, >40), survey wave dummies, federal state fixed effects, maternal tertiary education (dummy), and children’s age in month dummies. Dummies for missing values in any control variable are included as well. Cluster robust (on mother’s level) standard errors in parentheses. Significance levels: ^*p < 0.10, ^**p < 0.05, ^***p < 0.01.