Table 1

Randomness Check

	Male (1)	Married Parents (2)	Dad BA Degree (3)	Mom BA Degree (4)	Owning Home (5)	Internet Home (6)
Panel A: Test for Student Assignment
Kolmogorov–Smirnov test (Number of failed/total tests)	7/229	18/343	0/343	0/341	9/349	0/336
χ² goodness of fit test (Number of failed/total tests)	9/229	16/343	9/343	14/341	15/349	8/336
Panel B: Test for Teacher Assignment
Female teacher	0.018	−0.032	0.004	0.033	−0.016	−0.010
	(0.013)	(0.018)	(0.019)	(0.023)	(0.016)	(0.015)
Teacher experience	0.000	−0.001	0.002	0.000	0.001	−0.001
	(0.001)	(0.001)	(0.001)	(0.001)	(0.001)	(0.001)
Graduate degree	−0.014	0.014	0.029	0.045	0.028	0.026
	(0.020)	(0.017)	(0.019)	(0.019)	(0.019)	(0.017)
Teacher college graduate	−0.019	−0.012	0.000	0.008	0.003	−0.013
	(0.020)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.014)	(0.016)	(0.015)
Teacher union member	−0.008	0.014	−0.012	−0.000	−0.000	0.018
	(0.026)	(0.018)	(0.023)	(0.025)	(0.017)	(0.019)
N	530	856	848	720	909	671
R²	0.210	0.184	0.064	0.221	0.053	0.277

Notes: Each column represents a separate regression. The dependent variable is the empirical p-value from the resampling described in the text, for student characteristics, which are male student, having married parents, having father with BA degree or higher, having mother with BA degree or higher, owning their home, and having access to Internet home in Columns 1–6, respectively. Independent variables are teacher gender, teacher experience measured in years, dummies for graduate degree, teacher’s college graduate, and teacher’s union member. Each specification controls for subject and school fixed effects. Standard errors in parentheses are clustered at the school level. The Kolmogorov–Smirnov and v² goodness of fit test results indicate the number of tests of the uniformity of the distribution of p-values that failed at the 5 percent level. p < 0.05, *p < 0.01, **p < 0.001.