Table 9

Between-District Estimates of Promise Effects by Group

	Six-Month Enrollment at Four-Year		Six-Year BA/BS Attainment
Income groups	Non-low income	Low-income	Non-low income	Low-income
After × KPS	0.082^*	0.088	0.045	0.036
	[0.034]	[0.049]	[0.047]	[0.065]
Permutation p-value	0.032	0.129	0.323	0.387
N	327	330	177	179
Mean DV	0.299	0.196	0.213	0.105
Race	White	Nonwhite	White	Nonwhite
After × KPS	0.129^*	0.023	0.082	−0.028
	[0.0516]	[0.039]	[0.040]	[0.095]
Permutation p-value	0.097	0.387	0.161	0.677
N	317	332	174	181
Mean DV	0.274	0.242	0.203	0.140
Gender	Male	Female	Male	Female
After × KPS	0.090^**	0.056^*	−0.014	0.090
	[0.024]	[0.035]	[0.046]	[0.039]
Permutation p-value	0.032	0.065	0.677	0.161
N	332	332	181	181
Mean DV	0.234	0.283	0.155	0.201

↵Notes: Standard errors robust to heteroskedasticity are in brackets. *p < 0.10, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01. p-value is obtained using a placebo-regression permutation inference described in the text. Regressions include district-by-year proportions of students to teachers, students eligible for subsidized lunch, African-American students, and Hispanic students. For each observable, we also include the proportions of missings. The regressions control for district fixed effects, year-of-graduation time effects, and district-specific linear time trends. Observations are weighted by the number of district graduates. The mean of the dependent variable is for the control districts in the pre-Promise period. The control districts consist of the Michigan Middle Cities Education Association (MCEA) districts described in the text.