Table 4

Spillover Effects

	Standardized Math Grade	Math Grade >4.0	Attendance Rate	Cumulative Attendance >85%	Standardized # Negative Behavior Notes
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
T	0.070	0.006	0.005	0.009	0.113
T	[0.054]	[0.015]	[0.007]	[0.034]	[0.095]
T × High-share	0.042	0.052*	0.013	0.091*	–0.258*
T × High-share	[0.094]	[0.027]	[0.011]	[0.046]	[0.150]
Observations	2,011	2,011	2,011	2,011	2,011
Control mean	0.00	0.934	0.877	0.728	0.00
p-value	0.15	0.01	0.02	0.00	0.22
H₀:T + T × H = 0

Notes: Each row shows the intention-to-treat estimates and its corresponding standard error estimated using Equation 2 using OLS. T refers to the randomized individual-level treatment (equal to one if parents were sent text messages and zero otherwise). High-share refers to the randomized classroom-level treatment (equal to one for high-share classrooms and zero for low-share classrooms). All models include the baseline math grade, attendance rate as control variables, classroom (randomization strata), and year fixed effects. If baseline values of math grade/attendance were missing, we imputed them using the classroom-level mean and added an indicator variable for these imputed observations. Columns 1 and 5 report results on outcomes that were standardized so that the mean among the control students is zero and the standard deviation is one. Standard errors are clustered at the classroom level (shown in brackets). Significance: *p < 0.1, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01.