Heterogeneous Effects of Repeaters on Nonrepeaters: Outcomes and Mechanisms
| Child Discipline at Home | Regular Homework Check | Mother’s Education | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nonstrict | Strict | Difference | No | Yes | Difference | College or Higher | High School or Less | Difference | |
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | |
| Panel A: Cognitive and Noncognitive Outcomes | |||||||||
| Academic performance | –0.023* (0.009) | –0.019*** (0.006) | 0.004 (0.007) | –0.019* (0.009) | –0.021** (0.007) | –0.002 (0.011) | –0.002 (0.019) | –0.022*** (0.006) | –0.020 (0.018) |
| Observations | 1,356 | 5,157 | 6,513 | 1,564 | 5,301 | 6,865 | 1,074 | 5,712 | 6786 |
| Cognitive assessment | –0.030** (0.010) | –0.019** (0.006) | 0.011 (0.009) | –0.043*** (0.007) | –0.015* (0.006) | 0.028*** (0.007) | –0.014 (0.018) | –0.024*** (0.006) | –0.011 (0.018) |
| Observations | 1,385 | 5,237 | 6,622 | 1,603 | 5,377 | 6,980 | 1,084 | 5,821 | 6,905 |
| Mental stress | 0.007 (0.006) | 0.003 (0.004) | –0.003 (0.006) | 0.004 (0.006) | 0.003 (0.003) | –0.001 (0.005) | –0.006 (0.010) | 0.002 (0.004) | 0.008 (0.010) |
| Observations | 1,359 | 5,126 | 6,485 | 1,585 | 5,252 | 6,837 | 1,063 | 5,697 | 6,760 |
| School disengagement | 0.011* (0.005) | 0.004 (0.003) | –0.007 (0.006) | 0.011* (0.004) | 0.005 (0.003) | –0.007+ (0.004) | –0.012 (0.012) | 0.007* (0.003) | 0.021+ (0.011) |
| Observations | 1,379 | 5,219 | 6,598 | 1,597 | 5,363 | 6,960 | 1,080 | 5,795 | 6,875 |
| Educational expectations | –0.002 (0.005) | –0.003 (0.004) | –0.002 (0.005) | –0.006 (0.007) | –0.002 (0.004) | 0.005 (0.006) | 0.023+ (0.012) | –0.004 (0.004) | –0.027* (0.012) |
| Observations | 1,373 | 5,212 | 6,585 | 1,594 | 5,348 | 6,942 | 1,079 | 5,785 | 6,864 |
| Panel B: Mechanisms | |||||||||
| Positive student–teacher interaction | –0.001 (0.006) | –0.002 (0.003) | –0.001 (0.008) | –0.001 (0.005) | –0.002 (0.003) | –0.001 (0.007) | –0.011 (0.012) | –0.001 (0.002) | 0.009 (0.011) |
| Observations | 1,379 | 5,229 | 6,608 | 1,598 | 5,372 | 6,970 | 1,084 | 5,800 | 6,884 |
| Positive student–student interaction | –0.009+ (0.005) | –0.001 (0.004) | 0.008 (0.007) | –0.002 (0.005) | –0.002 (0.004) | –0.000 (0.006) | 0.003 (0.023) | –0.002 (0.004) | –0.003 (0.022) |
| Observations | 1,378 | 5,209 | 6,587 | 1,595 | 5,355 | 6,950 | 1,078 | 5,786 | 6,864 |
| After–school study time (hours) | –0.025*** (0.007) | –0.007+ (0.004) | 0.019** (0.006) | –0.016** (0.005) | –0.010+ (0.005) | 0.005 (0.007) | –0.003 (0.015) | –0.010* (0.004) | –0.006 (0.015) |
| Observations | 1,280 | 4,829 | 6,109 | 1,479 | 4,964 | 6,443 | 987 | 5,380 | 6,367 |
| Having friends with general disciplinary problems | 0.004 (0.005) | 0.001 (0.002) | –0.003 (0.004) | 0.003 (0.003) | 0.000 (0.002) | –0.003 (0.003) | –0.012 (0.007) | 0.003 (0.002) | 0.014* (0.007) |
| Observations | 1,356 | 5,164 | 6,520 | 1575 | 5305 | 6880 | 1067 | 5726 | 6793 |
| Having friends who go to internet cafés regularly | 0.006* (0.003) | 0.001 (0.001) | –0.004+ (0.003) | 0.006* (0.003) | –0.000 (0.001) | –0.006** (0.002) | –0.005 (0.005) | 0.003* (0.002) | 0.008 (0.005) |
| Observations | 1,355 | 5,153 | 6,508 | 1,571 | 5,297 | 6,868 | 1,067 | 5,714 | 6,781 |
↵Notes: Columns 3, 6, and 9 are results of joint F-tests examining whether the two groups of coefficients are significantly different from each other. All models include student, homeroom teacher, and classroom control variables, as well as school fixed effects. Standard errors in parentheses. + p< 0.10, *p<0.05, **p< 0.01, ***p< 0.001.