Notes: This table reports OLS coefficients from estimating Specification 1. The dependent variable is female labor force participation rate (FLFP) in percent except in Column 6, where it is female employment rate in percent, and in Column 11, where it is male labor force participation rate (MLFP) in percent. All regressions include département and year fixed effects. Controls include the share of rural population in percent and the share of population born in the département in percent. Census years are 1901, 1906, 1911, 1921, 1926, 1931, and 1936. Column 3 includes département-specific linear time trends, and Column 4 includes region-by-year fixed effects. In Column 5, military death rates are purged from pre-war trends between 1901 and 1911 in FLFP and rurality. In Column 7, female labor force participation includes female farm owners and excludes census year 1901. In Column 8, all 11 départements that experienced war combats on their territory are excluded. In Column 9, military death rates are corrected for pre-war migration patterns (see Online Appendix E). In Column 10, départements’ relative population sizes in 1911 are used as weights. Standard errors are in brackets and are clustered at the département level. Significance:

↵** p < 0.05,

↵*** p < 0.01.