Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) of children born in calendar year 2001, “Children’s Birth Certificates” (collection at nine months), “Parent–Guardian Interviews,” “Direct Child Assessments,” and “Early Care and Education Providers” (collection at 48 months).

Notes: A child is considered low-income if their (preschool-age or 2005–2006) family income is at or below 185 percent FPL. RF (ITT) columns give the difference in RF (ITT) coefficients on elig × treat between universal and targeted states. IV (TOT) columns give the difference in IV (TOT) coefficients on prek (instrumented with elig × treat using TSLS) between universal and targeted states. The RF column shows the coefficient on elig× treat × characteristic from the same model that produced the RF (ITT) coefficients. All regressions include dummies for state of residence, month × year of assessment, and month age five relative to the state kindergarten entry cutoff birth date in 2006–2007, and all demographic and background characteristics listed in Table 1, Panel B (except the low-income indicator in Columns 4–6), with separate control coefficients for the universal and targeted estimation samples. Regressions are weighted by longitudinal sampling weights, and standard errors (in parentheses) are clustered on state ×month of birth, “n.a.” means “not applicable.” “n.s.” means “not shown.”