Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) of children born in calendar year 2001, “Children’s Birth Certificates” (collection at nine months), “Parent–Guardian Interviews,” “Direct Child Assessments,” and “Early Care and Education Providers” (collection at 48 months).

Notes: A child is considered low-income if their (preschool-age or 2005–2006) family income is at or below 185 percent FPL, the threshold for eligibility for reduced-price lunch and the modal income eligibility criterion for the targeted programs under study. RF coefficients in Panel B are on the interaction between a dummy for being eligible for kindergarten in 2006–2007 and a dummy for being in a heated state (elig × treat”). IV coefficients in Panel C are on pre-K attendance (prék), estimated by instrumenting with elig × treat using TSLS. All coefficients are from separate regressions that also include dummies for state of residence, month × year of assessment, and month age five relative to the state kindergarten entry cutoff birth date in 2006–2007, and all demographic and background characteristics listed in Table 1, Panel B except the low-income indicator. Regressions are weighted by longitudinal sampling weights, and standard errors (in parentheses) are clustered on state × month of birth, “n.a.” means “not applicable.”